.V. . * • « **•* • a. .
Z'o 12-
Editors
Stanley Cramp
P F Bonham
I J Ferguson-Lees
M A Ogilvie
DIM Wallace
Photographic Editor
Eric Hosking
Volume 67
*974
Macmillan
List of photographs
COLOUR PLATE PAGE
2 Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri, Semipalmated Sandpiper C.
pusilla, Red-necked Stint C. rujicollis, Little Stint C. minula, Least
Sandpiper C. minutilla, Temminck’s Stint C. temminckii and Long-
toed Stint C. subminuta (painting by D. I. M. Wallace) following 20
BLACK-AND-WHITE PLATES
i Gannet Sula bassana brooding two chicks, East Lothian (Peter
Rowe) facing 20
3 Least Sandpiper Calidris minutilla, Western Sandpiper C. mauri,
Temminck’s Stint C. temminckii and Long-toed Stint C. subminuta
in flight (drawing by D. I. M. Wallace)
4 Lanner Falco biarmicus tearing up rodent stolen from Black-winged
Kite Elanus caeruleus, Kenya (J. F. Reynolds) ; Wren Troglodytes
troglodytes feeding young Cuckoo Cuculus canorus (N. A. J. Wilde)
facing 2 1
5-12 Palearctic birds in East Africa (J. F. Reynolds) : Grey Heron Ardea
cinerea, Purple Heron A. purpurea, White Stork Ciconia ciconia with
Yellow-billed Stork Mycleria ibis. Steppe Eagle Aquila rapax orientalis,
male Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus, female Lesser Kestrel Falco
naumanni, Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus, Ruff Philomachus pugnax.
Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Merops superciliosus, Red-throated Pipit
Anthus cervinus, male Black-headed Wagtail Motacilla flava feldegg
and Isabelline Wheatear Oenanthe isabellina facing 64
13-20 Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrix at the lelc: display grounds, various
postures, ‘flutter jumps’, courting, threatening and fighting,
Sweden, Dumfriesshire and Perthshire (Robert T. Smith, Arne
Schmitz, Gosta and Tony Tysk, and C. E. Palmar) facing 1 10
21-24 Adult Common and Arctic Terns Sterna hirundo and S. paradisaea,
mostly in flight, comparing upperwing patterns (David and Katie
Urry, Eric Hosking, J. B. and S. Bottomley, H. E. Grenfell, and
Hans Schouten) facing 154
25 Display platform, and egg nest with ramp, of Moorhens Gallinula
chloropus, Hampshire (N. A. Wood)
26-27 Male Common Tern Sterna hirundo paired with female Roseate Tern
S. dougallii, and chick, Northumberland (C. Stephen Robbins)
28 Nest of Stone Curlews Burhinus oedicnemus containing two eggs from
each of two females, Kent (R. E. Scott) ; Red-throated Diver
Gavia slellata, Lincolnshire (Keith Atkin) facing 155
P ’LATES
List of photographs
PAGE
.{9-36 More examples of the best recent work by British bird-photo-
graphers: Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus palustris at nest, Somerset
(G. H. E. Young) ; Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis in flight, Ross-
shire (David A. Gowans) ; Canada Goose B. canadensis, Ayrshire
(William S. Paton) ; juvenile Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos
pulling worm, Cornwall (J. B. and S. Bottomley); Little Egret
Egrelta garzetta with Dytiscus water beetle, Spain (Rodney Dawson) ;
Purple Heron Ardea purpurea on nest, Portugal (Kevin J. V.
Carlson) ; pair of Long-tailed Skuas Stercorarius longicaudus at nest,
Alaska (Bryan L. Sage) ; pair of Arctic Terns Sterna paradisaea at
nest, Outer Hebrides (D. A. P. Cooke); Swift Apus apus in flight,
Lincolnshire (Keith Atkin); male Crossbill Loxia curvirostra.
Surrey (Frank V. Blackburn) ; male Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus
flying away from incubating female, Staffordshire (R. J. C.
Blewitt) ; Azure-winged Magpie Cyanopica cyanus at nest, Portugal
(R. G. Carlson); herd of Whooper Swans Cygnus cygnus walking on
frozen lake, Lancashire (Dennis Green); Red-legged Partridge
Alectoris rufa, Suffolk (S. C. Porter) facing 198
37-40 Immature and juvenile Purple Gallinules Porphyrio porphyrio,
habitat and clutch, Spain (Jacques Vielliard) facing 238
41-44 Great Northern and White-billed Divers Gavia immer and G. adamsii
(J. B. and S. Bottomley, G. V. Adkin, and D. B. McGinn), and bills
and other details of both species from specimens (D. M. Burn.
G. V. Adkin, and City of Liverpool Museums) facing 282
45-50 Rare birds in 1973: immature Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax,
Lincolnshire (Keith Atkin) ; Great Spotted Cuckoo Clamator
glandarius, Cornwall (J. B. and S. Bottomley); Long-billed
Dowitchers Limnodromus scolopaceus, Cornwall (J. B. and S. Bottom-
ley) and Somerset (B. W. Thomas) ; drake Stcller’s Eider Polysticta
slelleri with Eiders Somateria mollissima. Outer Hebrides (Pamela
Harrison) ; Alpine Swift Apus melba, Devon (M. Rogers) ; White-
rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis, Suffolk (C. R. Naunton);
Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis and Sharp-tailed
Sandpiper Calidris acuminata, Flintshire (Dennis Green) facing 334
51 Pectoral Sandpipers Calidris melanotos , Cornwall (J. B. and S.
Bottomley) facing 335
52-54 Icterine Warblers Hippolais icterina feeding brood, and nest and
eggs, Denmark (lb Trap-Lind) facing 382
55 Winter roost site of Crag Martins Hirundo rupestris, Gibraltar
(N. Elkins) facing 383
56-63 Breeding behaviour, nests, eggs and young of Great Crested Grebes
Podiceps cristatus, Northern Ireland and Berkshire (W. N. Charles;
egg-laying (M. Wiechmann) facing 426
64 Immature Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea, Hampshire (J. B. and
S. Bottomley) facing 470
List of photographs
PLATES PAGE
65-66 Model of outspread rectrices of Woodcock Scolopax rusticola
(Collingwood Ingram); day-old Cuckoo Cuculus canorus in nest of
Swallows Hirundo rustica, Somerset (G. H. E. Young); aerial view
of Regent’s Park and Primrose Hill, London (Aerofilms)
67 Matthew Fontaine Maury Meiklejohn, ma (19 13- 1974) facing 471
68-71 Shore and Horned Larks Eremophila alpestris: in winter plumage,
and habitat, Lincolnshire (J. B. and S. Bottomley), female incubat-
ing, Norway (Eric Soothill), and at nests with young, Utah (Allan
D. Cruickshank) ; Temminck’s Horned Larks E. bilopha at nests with
young, Jordan (Eric Hosking) facing 512
List of vignettes
PAGE
40 Bewick’s Swans Cygnus bewickii (Robert R. Greenhalf)
65 Rook Corvus frugilegus (Robert Gillmor)
66 Partridge Perdix perdix and Red-legged Partridge Alectoris rufa (Robert
Gillmor)
67 Woodpigeon Columba palumbus (Robert Gillmor)
88 Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni (D. I. M. Wallace)
103 Gannets Sula bassana (Robert Gillmor)
120 Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrix (Donald Watson)
301 Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis (James Williamson-Bell)
348 Little Swift Apus affinis (D. I. M. Wallace)
437 Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus and young (Robert Gillmor)
501 Barn Owl Tylo alba (Robert R. Greenhalf)
Volume 67 Number 1 January 1974
STINT IDENTIFICATION
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Volume 67 Number 1 January 1974
Field identification of small species
in the genus Calidris
D. I. M. Wallace
with special assistance from P. J. Grant
Plates 2-3
INTRODUCTION
The field identification of small Calidris species, commonly called
stints in Britain and sandpipers or ‘peeps’ in North America, pre-
sents many problems. Yet separation is possible in many circum-
stances, and the recent record of British and Irish identifications
bears witness to the increasing success of observers who try hard.
However, it has been difficult for them to find helpful references
quickly, and in 1970 the Rarities Committee decided that in
response to many requests a paper should be prepared. Its original
aim was to simplify as much as possible the identification of the
Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla, and the task eventually fell to
me. For many years I had been collecting material on stints, and
since 1967 I had also been pursuing the thought that our lack of
knowledge could be masking occurrences of the two east Asiatic
species, the Red-necked (or Eastern Little) Stint C. ruficollis and the
Long-toed Stint C. subminuta.
This paper has therefore been written on a wider brief than was
originally intended and deals with the three species already men-
tioned, the Little Stint C. minuta, the Western Sandpiper C. mauri,
the Least Sandpiper (or American Stint) C. minutilla and Tem-
minck’s Stint C. temminckii. That the inclusion of the two east
Asiatic species was wise has been demonstrated by the events of last
autumn, which have dramatically upset previous attitudes to stint
identification and which forced me to revise this paper at its
I
2
Identification of small Calidris
eleventh hour. An adult stint in moult to winter plumage stayed at
Minsmere, Suffolk, from 14th August to 26th October 1973. It was
thought by most observers to be a Semipalmated Sandpiper, but
some early doubts became vexing when a young stint present on the
River Humber near Brough, Yorkshire, from 14th to 19th September,
which also recalled Semipalmated, showed unwebbed feet. On 24th
September the Minsmere bird was trapped and it, too, was found to
have unwebbed feet. Clearly neither bird was a Semipalmated Sand-
piper, and both may have been Red-necked Stints. Wider research
has disclosed that of all the stints the Red-necked is the globe-trotter.
Normally migrating between the eastern Palearctic and Australasia,
since 1962 vagrants have reached Ohio, U.S.A. (Ahlquist 1964),
Bermuda (K. Pellew in litt.), West Germany (Ringleben 1969) and
South Africa (Clancey 1964a, 1964b). The records are dated from
July to December and the three birds in the northern hemisphere
were all adults, immediately posing the question of how many
immatures have been missed. As yet there is no European record of
a Long-toed Stint, but there is growing evidence of a small passage
to East Africa (Broberg 1967, Backhurst and Britton 1969; S. C.
Madge, H. P. Medhurst and Dr R. J. Raines verbally or in litt.).
Patently, neither Red-necked nor Long-toed should be regarded as
more unlikely to reach Britain and Ireland than the Sharp-tailed
Sandpiper C. acuminata. Stint identification has never been easy; it
now calls for the keenest eyes, the greatest concentration and the
most patient analysis of both visual and aural characters.
STINT SYSTEMATICS
The fact that the Red-necked Stint has reached continental Europe
(and, as may yet be proved, Britain) has complicated the already
difficult situation surrounding records of the Semipalmated Sand-
piper. It is vital to understand why, and thus some comment on
stint systematics is necessary. Initially regarded as only a sub-
species of the Little Stint, the Red-necked is now generally awarded
specific rank (Vaurie 1965, Dementiev and Gladkov 1966-68).
However, it is clearly very closely related to the Little Stint and
even specimens can leave one groping. Furthermore, it converges
with the Semipalmated in two structural characters, and exhibits at
least one plumage virtually matched by both this species and the
Little Stint. Semipalmated and Western also have historical claims
to be considered as forming a superspecies: on the basis of their
partially webbed feet, many North American authorities have even
placed them in a separate genus Ereunetes. Another species pair is
made up of Least and Long-toed, whose convergence is also marked
to some eyes. Thus only one species stands alone, and that is
Temminck’s. Significantly it possesses the only faultless field-
3
Identification of small Calidris
character — mainly white outer tail-feathers. In the context of this
paper, however, it would be pointless to quarrel with the view of
'Vaurie (1965) and Voous (1973) who lump all seven stints in
Calidris ; the sequence of species followed on pages 4-10 and else-
where is enough to indicate their relationships within this genus.
Two other Nearctic species, the White-rumped Sandpiper C.fusci-
collis and Baird’s Sandpiper C. bairdii, are also often referred to as
‘peeps’. However, they are not true stints and, since both possess
very individual field-characters adequately described in the current
literature — for example, Hollom (i960) and Johns (1969) — they
are excluded from this paper.
OTHER IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS
A thorough knowledge of the Little Stint, particularly in variant
immature and winter plumages, is the sine qua non of stint identifica-
tion. Observers must not regard this common autumn migrant
simply as providing a starting point. Annual study of Little Stints is
fundamental to the crucial comparisons needed to prove the identity
of other stints. A long peer at each autumn’s first, second, and so on,
is worth days of book work (and is much less confusing).
As I have just hinted, no field guide or handbook gives sufficient
detail for observers to identify every stint, even in the most favour-
able circumstances. Reference to the widest possible literature and
skin examination is essential in difficult cases and, wherever possible,
any unusual stint should be trapped and photographed. Even in the
hand this group is difficult: witness the long haul to the first British
record of a Western Sandpiper, on Fair Isle in 1956 (Nisbet 1963).
Lastly, I must stress the complex effects of age and moult upon
plumage in stint identification. We are concerned with three main
plumages: first-autumn, winter and breeding. Of these the first is
the most important, since in temperate regions the majority of con-
tacts between observers and stints occur from August to October.
Only recently have the authors of field guides and handbooks real-
ised this, and most books currently available feature mainly adults
in breeding and winter dress. The former is exhibited by most spring
migrants through Europe, but the latter is rarely seen here except
on a few wintering birds. To redress the previous ill balance, there-
fore, discussion in this paper concentrates on the appearance of
immatures in first-autumn plumage.
FIELD-CHARACTERS OF STINTS
Plate 2 portrays all seven stints in first-autumn, six in winter and
four in breeding plumage. In several figures the plumage has been
‘stretched' to show important marks more fully, but as far as possible
all the birds are scaled against mean measurements of wing, bill
4
Identification of small Calidris
and tarsus (with some allowance for size and overall length).
Plate 3 illustrates the flight-patterns of the four species most dis-
tinctive on the wing. Figs. 1-4 show the general character of stints
and the three Nearctic species in situations likely to occur in the
field. The detailed treatments which follow describe the more useful
diagnostic characters, though the comments on the length of the
closed wings relative to the tip of the tail must be regarded as
tentative at this stage.
Little Stint C. minuta
First autumn : Upperparts dark brown or chestnut, feathers with small dark centres
and light buff tips and fringes forming delicate pattern (more scaly than immature
Dunlin C. alpina ) ; mantle and scapulars on each side marked by two pale whitish
stripes, the upper sharply defined and joining in mid-back to form classic V (some
individuals have upperparts noticeably darker than average, and a few have them
greyer, but all still show both stripes) ; forecrown whitish, appearing unmarked in
profile; supercilium whitish (sometimes pronounced but often clouded with buffy-
grey), forking above and behind eye; lores dark but ear-coverts pale brownish and
rarely well marked; chest patches tinged orange-buff and lightly spotted in lines
(buff often extending to form faint pectoral band, particularly on dark individuals).
Winter : Upperparts pale pearly or mouse-grey, feathers with noticeable dusky
centres and light tips (pattern of scales still present but less delicate) ; in first-
winter birds usually a brownish cast on back and occasional retention of pale
stripes; forehead markedly white, and supercilium whiter than in first autumn;
lores and ear-coverts dusky; chest patches greyish with fine streaks.
Breeding: Upperparts foxy (redder than in first autumn), general tone becoming
yellower with wear, with beautiful patterns of feathers each dark-centred and light-
tipped or fringed, but lacking obvious pale stripes (though one occasionally shows
along edge of mantle) ; head rich brown and lacking pale area over bill ; chest with
full or partial gorget of buff, finely spotted and streaked.
All plumages : Outer tail-feathers greyish ; in flight a pronounced whitish wing-bar
(all primary shafts whitish).
Bare parts: Bill black, short, almost straight, fairly fine (base quite stout, tip always
fine without obvious expansion) ; legs and feet blackish, occasionally dark green.
Wing structure: Three or four primary tips show beyond longest tertial and extend
slightly beyond end of tail.
Autumn stints, fig. 1. Flock of Little Stints Calidris minuta, illustrating general
characters of stints — small size, volatility, complex upperpart pattern, white
underparts and endearing appearance
Identification of small Calidris
5
Autumn stints, fig. 2. Four Little Stints Calidris minuta and (foreground, second
from left) one Semipalmatcd Sandpiper C. pusilla. Last atypically small but still
separable from three rear Little Stints (in unworn first-autumn plumage) by duller,
only faintly striped back, from Little on far right (in partial winter plumage) by
prominence of rear scapulars, and from all four by blunt bill-tip and prominent
pale collar
Autumn stints, fig. 3. Three Little Stints Calidris minuta behind Least Sandpiper
C. minutilla. Last smaller and more crouching, with thinner back stripes (con-
trasting less in spite of darker plumage) and needle-like bill. Dark immature Little
Stints (far right) occur, requiring care
Autumn stints, fig. 4. Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri in front of three Southern
Dunlins C. alpina schinzii (from left, in first-autumn, winter and worn summer
plumage). Western approaches young Dunlin in size (particularly in bill length),
but is distinguishable on face and underpart pattern, behaviour and call
6
Identification of small Calidris
Red-necked Stint C. ruficollis
First autumn: Upperparts when fresh colder, more blackish-brown than in Little
Stint, particularly on crown and mantle where feathers have dull buff and whitish
fringes; overlap of mantle-edge fringes forming on some only diffuse and incom-
plete V (far less distinct than in Little, not meeting over back) ; overlap of mande-
centre fringes creating indistinct whitish streaks (not obvious scales as in Little).
Upperparts when worn (this happening quickly) become darker and greyer than in
Little (losing all vestiges of mantle V) and drabber than in Semipalmated.
Whether fresh or worn, rear upperparts noticeably black and scapular lines obvious,
with blackish feather centres enhancing pale greyish-white fringes (recalling Semi-
palmated) ; wing-coverts appear generally paler and more spangled than mantle
(unlike Semipalmated), with fringes pale buff or ochre (not chestnut as in Little),
tertials similarly fringed (again paler than in Little) ; pale buff fringes of feathers
often give upperparts pink tone; forecrown and supercilium white (as Western,
not like Semipalmated and much cleaner than in Little), latter not forking pro-
minently above eye; throat white extending to form half-collar (as in Semi-
palmated and Western), lores and ear-coverts essentially greyish (lacking brownish
suffusion of most Little Stints) ; chest pattern variable, either washed with buffy-
grey with side streaks, or more usually white with faint ochre wash and very
restricted marks; rest of underparts white, probably palest of all young stints (at
least in early autumn).
Winter: Upperparts light grey, very close to Little but cleaner due to new fea-
ther centres being more finely streaked, not so blotched dark (thus more uniform
than Little and lacking the ochre tinge of Semipalmated) ; forecrown strikingly
white (distinct from Semipalmated and Long-toed) ; rest of face paler than in
first autumn; underparts usually very clean and white, with chest washed grey
only at sides (majority much cleaner than Semipalmated and most Little, but
some with wash complete or a few side streaks).
Breeding: Upperparts essentially as Little, but pattern again different, with
feather-centre and edge contrast reduced and combined effect less scaly, more
spangled with white; forecrown and fore-supercilium whitish, upper head duller
than in Little but lower part suffused rufous; throat (not white chin) and upper
chest markedly rufous (unique to this species, but absent in some individuals), chest
sides and flanks with some large spots.
All plumages: Tail as in Little, though outer feathers can appear paler; in flight a
well-defined whitish wing-bar (at least as pronounced as in Little, more so than in
Semipalmated and Long- toed).
Bare parts : Bill blackish, short, almost straight, rather stout (base noticeably thick,
and tip very slightly expanded, thus looking stubby compared with most Little
Stints but not appreciably different from smaller-billed Semipalmated, contra
Peterson 1961, Robbins et al. 1 966) ; legs and feet blackish or grey.
Wing structure: Longest winged of all stints, some exceeding Little by 10%, though
not appreciably overlapping tail (since this is also longer than in Little).
Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla
First autumn: Upperparts drab greyish- or ochraceous-brown (paler and less rusty
than in Little and Western, recalling Dunlin), with darker feather centres and
light tips giving scaly appearance as in Little, but less bright; mantle and scapulars
each marked by a pair of pale stripes but much less distinctly than in Little, the
upper pair obvious only from behind and worn off by late autumn; lower scapulars
dark brown with pale ochre fringes forming prominent overlay of spearheads
between evenly patterned back and wing (as in Red-necked) ; centre of forecrown
7
Identification of small Calidris
grey, joining with faintly streaked dun-grey crown, supercilium whitish and
rather broad behind eye but not forking prominently above it (forecrown dirtier
than in Red-necked, this and less diffuse supercilium useful differences from Little),
lores dusky and ear-coverts dark brownish, forming solid patch below which
whitish throat extends to give half-collar effect (like Red-necked and Western,
again affording more definite face pattern than in Little) ; chest patches greyish-
buff, spotted or streaked with smudged marks (more obvious than in Red-necked),
and on some a very faint but complete buff or salmon-pink pectoral band.
Winter: Upperparts ochraceous-grey (more uniform than in Little, again recalling
Dunlin and very like first-winter Red-necked); no obvious back stripes but
scapular spearheads retained (and often more obvious) ; head and face pattern as
first autumn but paler and greyer, particularly on lores and ear-coverts; chest
patches less marked.
Breeding: Upperparts markedly yellowish or ochraceous-brown, with dark feather
centres and rufous, buff or yellowish-white fringes (brighter and warmer than in
first autumn, but still paler than in Western and yellower than in Little) ; head and
face as first autumn but suffused brown ; chest markings sharp and widespread,
continuing as streaks along flanks (not heart-shaped as in Western, and their
lateral extension a clear distinction from Little).
All plumages: Tail as in Little; in flight a fairly distinct whitish or greyish wing-bar
(usually less contrasting than in Little, due to generally duller plumage).
Bare parts: Bill black, typically short, straight or very slightly decurved, and stout
(base thick and deep, tip blunt in profile and noticeably expanded head-on,
forming unique character at close range), but longer and narrower in birds breed-
ing in eastern Canada; legs and feet blackish, dark brownish-grey or olive, feet
semi-palmated (webs visible on still or slowly moving bird close to observer and
head-on, occasionally yielding club-footed appearance at longer range).
Wing structure: One or two primary tips show beyond longest tertial and extend
to or just past end of tail.
Western Sandpiper C. mauri
First autumn: Upperparts mixed rufous-brown and grey (rufous feathers much
warmer than in Semipalmated), feather tips varying from bright chestnut to
whitish (yielding more striking pattern than in Semipalmated, but most individuals
less warm and scaly than Little) ; no sharply defined stripes on mantle (as Semi-
palmated, and unlike Little), but scapulars noticeably edged or blotched rufous
and black in most, forming bold bright line over wing: wing-coverts greyer and
rather paler than back, some fringed with rufous or buff and others tipped white
(some birds noticeably grey in this area, with rufous splashes few and isolated) ;
forecrown distinctly whitish (as in Little and Red-necked, whiter than in Semi-
palmated); supercilium almost white, wide, square-ended and only indistinctly
forked (most striking of any stint), with forecrown yielding white face and con-
trasting with dark rufous crown and ear-coverts, latter usually forming clear-cut
patch (more obvious than in Semipalmated) ; throat white extending to form half-
collar ; chest patches buffish-grey with pronounced and extensive side streaks (more
than in Little or Semipalmated), rest of underparts appearing whiter than in
Semipalmated.
Winter: Upperparts eventually pearly grey (recalling Broad-billed Sandpiper
Limicola falcinellus), but many first-winter and adult birds retain chestnut blotches
on mantle, scapulars and wing-coverts, looking strongly variegated; head usually
noticeably pale with forecrown wholly white and lores very pale (these features
increasing the white face to a degree unmatched by any other stint except Red-
8 Identification of small Calidris
necked) ; chest marks less obvious than in first autumn, some appearing white-
chested ; flanks retain a few shaft marks.
Breeding: Upperparts rufous-brown, scapulars particularly rusty (thus warmer than
Semipalmated and Least, but not as foxy as Little) ; crown and ear-coverts always
bright chestnut with darker flecks, in some whole head suffused reddish-buff and
pale face reduced; chest sides buff, and chest, flanks and even lateral tail-coverts
heavily spotted and streaked with black arrowheads or hearts (marks in these
areas the most extensive of any stint).
All plumages: Tail as in Little; in flight a fairly distinct whitish wing-bar (less
obvious in winter due to paler upperparts).
Bare parts: Bill blackish, typically strikingly long, heavy and drooping (base
noticeably deep, distal third becoming thinner and ending in fine tip, recalling
Southern Dunlin C. a. schinzii), but broad overlap in males with female Semipal-
mated (none with Little) ; legs and feet blackish or dark olive, former fairly long
(exceeding those of any other stint) and latter semi-palmated (webs visible in
similar circumstances to those noted under Semipalmated, though probably even
more noticeable).
Wing structure: Two primary tips show beyond longest tertial, and longest primary
extends just past end of tail.
Least Sandpiper C. minutilla
First autumn: Upperparts swarthy dark brown, particularly on mande, little
patterned due to absence of more than thin rusty or whitish tips or fringes (much
darker than in Semipalmated, less bright than either Little or Western, more
uniform than Long-toed) ; mantle and scapulars each marked by a pair of pale
buff or whitish stripes, the upper often forming a thin V (as in Little but less
obvious), the lower more prominent but not joining at rear; sides of forecrown
pale (but rarely markedly so, compared with Little and particularly Western),
crown feathers dark with rusty edges, forming cap; supercilium buffish-white with
slight forking above eye (as in Little, not as in Long-toed) ; lores and ear-coverts
dusky, with brown marks behind eye hardly forming patch, but head generally
darker than in Semipalmated; chest patches joining in pectoral band, ground
colour pale buffish-grey with streaking pronounced at sides and, on some, across
chest (recalling Long-toed and thus distinct from Semipalmated) ; rest of under-
parts looking particularly white in contrast with dark upperparts.
Winter: Upperparts dusky-brown, with dark feather centres still obvious (less
so than in Long-toed but much more prominently than in Little, thus distinct from
drab Semipalmated) ; head and face pattern as in first autumn but less marked ;
chest retaining many streaks (like Long-toed and heavier-marked than Little and
Semipalmated), lower throat also streaked (unlike Little and Semipalmated);
rest of underparts still very white in appearance.
Breeding: Upperparts warm dusky-brown with feathers tipped thinly with paler
brown or buff (not as boldly patterned as Long-toed, darker and less rufous than
in Little, and much darker than in Semipalmated), wing-coverts tipped orange-
buff; head rather dark and chest strongly streaked (as in Long-toed, more than
in Little and Semipalmated) ; underparts gleaming white in contrast with upper-
parts which become very dark when worn.
All plumages: Tail as in Little; in flight a thin whitish wing-bar contrasting little
with dark plumage.
Bare parts: Bill blackish, short, straight except for faint drop, and thin (base finer
than in any other stint, bill tapering to needle-like tip); legs and feet typically
yellowish-green to brown or grey-green in first autumn, but may be dark brown or
Identification of small Calidris 9
olive, appearing black (thus exhibiting widest colour range of all stints) ; legs
rather short.
Wing structure: Primary tips cloaked by longest tertial and wings shortest of all
stints (9% shorter than those of smallest Little Stints), just lapping end of tail.
Long-toed Stint C. subminuta
First autumn: Upperparts similar to dark Little and Least but noticeably stronger-
marked, mantle with prominent blackish feather centres (larger than in Little by
50%) and lacking stripes; forecrown dark with streaks of crown cap extending to
bill (not as Little, and darker than most Least), supercilium whitish or cream-
coloured with slight flecking, not forking above eye (unlike Little or Least), lores
and ear-coverts well marked (more flecked than in Little), nape distinctly greyish
(more obvious than in Little) ; chest streaked right across, forming gorget (recalling
Temminck’s), rest of underparts apparently dull white (noticeably darker in skins
than any other stint, though this not noted in field observations).
Winter : Upperparts darker, duller and browner than in typical Little (and browner
than all Red-necked), similar to Least but with the larger and blacker feather
centres remaining obvious and their edges greyish-fawn (not so clean as in Little
and Red-necked, nor as thin as in Least); forecrown still dark, face patch still
pronounced (thus no white face effect as in Little, Red-necked and Western) ; chest
suffused greyish-brown and streaked (as in Least, much darker than in Little and
Red-necked), some marks extending along flanks; underparts again rather dull
(in skins).
Breeding: Upperparts typically recalling dark Little or Least, generally rufous-
brown but with mantle always showing more obvious and blacker feather centres;
crown noticeably dark and heavily streaked ; chest tinged rufous and streaked (not
finely spotted as in Little) ; white of underparts again sullied (in skins).
All plumages: Lower back and rump centre very black; tail as in Little; in flight a
thin, diffuse, whitish wing-bar, made obvious only by dark plumage; all but one
primary shaft brownish (as Temminck’s, not Little).
Bare parts: Bill colour of some adults unique among stints, yellowish or olive-brown
with dark tip, but in others paler colour is confined to base of lower mandible and
in others still it is absent; bill colours of young birds uncertain but many apparently
wholly dark or with only greenish base to low'er mandible; bill shape close to that
of Least, with fine tip slightly drooping; legs and feet dull yellow through olive to
greenish slate (again matching Least and spring Temminck’s).
Wing structure: Second shortest of all stints, being only marginally longer than that
of Least.
Temminck’s Stint C. temminckii
First autumn: Upperparts dusky or oily brown, almost olive in some lights, with less
distinct tips and fringes than in Little or any other stint (thus much less pattern,
looking uniform at long range) ; head rather dark, with noticeably indistinct super-
cilium (again far less pattern than in Little); chest patches pronounced, washed
strong grey, softly streaked and barred.
Winter : Upperparts dull grey-brown, much darker than in Little, with feather
edges faint (thus virtually uniform) ; chest patches still very obvious.
Breeding: Upperparts brown, rather olive when fresh, greyer later, with back
feathers irregularly patched by dark centres or marks and yellowish-buff fringes
(never as foxy or scaly as in Little) ; supercilium poorly marked (‘eyebrows’ only) ;
gorget greyish, usually complete and well streaked.
10
Identification of small Calidris
All plumages: General pattern recalls Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos ; three
outer tail-feathers mainly white, unique to this species; in flight a whitish wing-bar
(all but 2nd primary shafts brown) and noticeably dark centre to tail (partly due
to contrast with outer feathers).
Bare parts : Bill blackish, often darkening at tip, short, straight or slightly decurved,
and fine (normally finer than in Little); legs and feet pale, greenish-yellow to
brown, rarely green or dark green.
Wing structure: At least three primary tips show beyond longest tertial and form
pointed ‘cloak’ to tail.
SIZE
Since all stints are small, with total lengths between I2f cm (5 inches)
and 1 6| cm (6| inches) , judging their size is difficult unless they are in
close company with other small or medium-sized waders. Further
complications arise from the considerable variation in size between
individuals of the same species and sex, and from the fact that
females are usually larger than males, by up to 5%. Even so, it is
generally accepted that the mean lengths of the five Nearctic and
west Palearctic species may be graded as follows;
Least
I2f cm (5")
Shortest wings and tail, small head ; looks slighter
than normal Little
Little
14 cm (5J")
Semipalmated
Hi cm (5I")
Looks bulkier than Little, with longer tail and
slightly longer head; longer legs sometimes
obscured by crouching gait
Temminck’s
Hi cm (5J")
Rather short bill and legs compared with Little,
but longer wings and especially longer tail give
generally lengthier appearance
Western
i6£ cm (6£")
Longest bill and legs; looks larger-headed, bulkier
and longer-bodied than Little and most Semi-
palmated
Placing Red-necked and Long-toed into this series is difficult. In the
field the former looks fractionally larger and bulkier than the Little
Stint; on average it is longer-winged and tailed and must therefore
be very close to Semipalmated in size. Surprisingly for a species
considered closely allied to Least, Long-toed is, on published
measurements (except wing), closer to Little in size, and it has
rather long legs and distinctly longer toes, the middle one averaging
about 24 mm against 19 mm in Little. ‘Far more foot’ has been
seen in the field and clearly photographed. It is possible that the
size of Long-toed varies considerably, since some observers opine
that it appears larger and taller than Tcmminck’s, while others
stress its slightness, comparing it with Least. Finally, it should be
noted that the occurrence of runt Dunlins close in size to Western
Sandpipers can mislead even the most experienced: one such
observer was baffled by this problem for eight hours.
Identification of small Calidris
1 1
VOICE
In this section I discuss only calls, since migrant stints very rarely
utter song-phrases. Most stints are vocal on passage and in winter,
and the literature contains many transcriptions of the calls of the
American and European species. However, translating these for
ease of comparison is difficult (and it is certain that two pairs of
human ears can hear the same call of a small Calidris quite dif-
ferently). This must be remembered when referring to table I,
where all the available information is summarised.
Table I. Calls of small Calidris on passage
For each species monosyllables are given first, then multisyllables, and finally
alternative transcriptions indicating similarity to other species
Little
C. minuta
Red-necked
C. rtificollis
Semipalmatcd
C. pusilla
Western
C. mauri
Least
C. minutilla
Long-toed
C. subminuta
Temminck’s
C. temminckii
tit or chit, short, clipped, quite low in pitch, but sharp and incisive
to some ears; tilti-tit-tit or tit-titter, with suggestion of trill at times
(thus tirri-tit-tit) ; also drrt, pit or chip
pit or pip, chit, close to call of Little but ‘coarser’, and more typically
a squeak like movement of saddle leather; chit-chit-chit, thin and
weak; week-week-week, short and high-pitched; also tee t- tee t- tee t, krrit
in alarm, and soft chlit as contact-note
check, crit, chirt, short, clipped, quite low; chrruk, chrrp, chrup, krip,
husky, less emphatic than Dunlin C. alpina but harsher than Little
Stint; chirr-chirrt-chirrt or chereet, with slightly increasing pitch;
also cheh, chet, chep, chip, chip, all rather flat in tone and weaker than
Little; kripe, creet, rolled chrrup or trrr, churrup, chittup, tik, chu
cheet or jeet, short, high-pitched and penetrating (recalling White
rumped Sandpiper C. fuscicollis) ; ‘peeping trill’ or liquid phrases
recalling Dunlin, also chee-rp, jeep, preep, preet, pritt, pit or swit
kreet or kreep, drawn out (more than in Western) and quite high in
pitch; kree-it, kree-eet, quee-ee-eet, trrip-trip and trip-trip-peet-wit
recalling Temminck’s; also quee or che (sometimes in rapid succes-
sion), breep and teer(i)p in great variety of inflections
chrrup, trerp, purring or rolled; twin, high-pitched; tik or chi;
chi-chi-chi, rapid, medium or high-pitched; chirrup and trn-trrr-tm
(half-way between Curlew Sandpiper C. fenuginea and Dunlin) ;
also tic, tring and tik-tik-tik
tin, short, trilled, medium-pitched; tini, tmrit or commonly
tin-it-tit-tit, with rising inflection (sometimes with tsweeu inter-
jected), also chit-chit and titititititi
It is evident that, like other Calidris, stints utter a variety of
calls and commonly extend monosyllables into series or phrases.
Monosyllables are essentially contact notes, but they may also be
given in alarm, when a greater degree of emphasis is usually audible.
The purpose of multisyllables (from migrants) is less clear, but
I have noted such calls from Semipalmated, Least, Long-toed and
Temminck’s as long escape or flight-intention signals. They may
1 2 Identification of small Calidris
also have a special function in locating an individual bird among its
kin or other waders. Little Stints frequently titter in flocks, and I
have heard Western Sandpipers trill in a small group. Solitary
vagrants are sometimes remarkably vocal, one British Least Sand-
piper giving at least four clearly distinct calls within a few minutes.
The notes in table i show that there are both actual and per-
ceived overlaps in voice. These are inevitably troublesome but, if
written with care, transcriptions of calls may be of great use in
identification. In particular, it should be noted that the common
trilling calls of Temminck’s are very distinctive, that constantly
high-pitched calls are usually given by Red-necked, Western and
Least, and that medium or low-pitched calls normally come only
from Little, Long-toed and Semipalmated, the last usually putting
an V in all its utterances. There may be no inviolate precepts,
but the observer who notes the voice of an unusual stint merely
as a non-committal peep is making a sore rod for his back !
GENERAL CHARACTER AND ACTIONS
Once again it is difficult (and inadvisable) to rule on the general
characters of the seven species, but some seem to have distinctive
actions and attitudes. Western has often been noted as assuming
a more upright posture than Little and Semipalmated (recalling
Curlew Sandpiper C. ferruginea rather than Dunlin), but recent
experience has shown that this is not a constant character of Western,
in spite of its long legs. Nevertheless it does look longer-bodied or
rangier than Little and Semipalmated, and the set of its bulky
head tends to make its lengthy bill point downwards at a steeper
angle both on the ground and in flight. Western also appears to
carry more weight forward than any other stint, and its flight action
is rather less fluttery, perhaps also because of its extra bulk. It wades
and swims more freely than any other stint and probes more fre-
quently when feeding; thus it can recall Dunlin in more characters
than just size.
In contrast, Semipalmated exhibits a much closer and more
troublesome affinity with Little and Red-necked. It has been usual
to stress its less round-shouldered carriage and more upright alarm
posture compared with Little, but again British observations during
the last few years have not confirmed these differences as constant.
At least one definite Semipalmated closely watched over several
weeks, often with Little Stints, exhibited a squarer head held low,
less neck extension, marked crouching with tibia often cloaked,
and a mouse-like gait. Certainly the flight of Semipalmated appears
identical with that of Little; when feeding it wades less than Western
and picks rather than probes, usually with greater deliberation than
Little. Lastly, Dr I. C. T. Nisbet, who has seen all seven stints in
*3
Identification of small Calidris
numbers, regards Semipalmated as the most quarrelsome.
Least is, to my eyes, ‘the stint of stints’, a marvellously quick
and engagingly erratic creature, but it has also been noted as
placid and confiding. It looks small and square-headed and flexes
its legs more than any other stint, thus appearing remarkably
crouched when feeding or running. Its flight action is very rapid,
with a very fast rate of climb; its wings look small in relation to its
body.
Fast climbing or ‘towering’ is also characteristic of Temminck’s
and Long-toed, but on the ground both are noted as rather placid.
Because of the contrasts of dark rump and tail centre against white
lateral tail-coverts and outer tail-feathers, Temminck’s often
looks longer-tailed than other stints in flight; it also appears more
slender than Little on the ground and moves its head less. Compared
with Temminck’s (and Least), Long-toed often shows a noticeably
upright stance, recalling Tringa sandpipers, and frequently extends
its neck, thus adding to its visibility among flocks of Red-necked
and Temminck’s. However, it can also look as attenuated as the
latter species.
Rcd-nccked has been noted as more quarrelsome than Long-toed,
and very vociferous. While observers stress its similarity in winter
plumage to Little, they nevertheless opine that its general character
recalls a miniature Sanderling C. alba by virtue of its greater girth
and stubby bill. However, similar comments have been applied to
Semipalmated, and clearly it and Red-necked may be very' close in
character and behaviour; much more critical observation of both
is needed before any distinction can be attempted on these grounds
alone. Indeed, much remains to be learned about stint character
and behaviour in general, and it is hoped that observers will pay
more attention to these aspects, particularly specific interactions.
The meagre evidence gathered so far indicates that Little is domi-
nated by Semipalmated, Long-toed and probably Red-necked,
usually giving ground to any sign of aggression from them.
Finally, lest it be thought that Little Stints do not at least occa-
sionally crouch on flexed legs and patter across mud largely' by foot
movements alone, I must state diat I watched at least five con-
tinuously showing such stance and gait for 15 minutes on 29th and
30th September 1973. They were on exposed mud facing into a
force 4-5 wind. In sheltered pools nearby, up to six others were
moving about normally.
HABITAT PREFERENCES
Since habitat preferences are so often suppressed by the exigencies
of migration, reliance upon them even as pointers to identification
is dangerous. However, all three pale-legged species, particularly
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Identification of small Calidris
Long-toed and Temminck’s, share not only towering flights but
a liking for small pools or wet patches in grassy or reedy ground
inland. (It may well be that their escape behaviour is linked to
the generally close horizons of these habitats compared with those
of open mud.) These habitat preferences appear to be widespread,
having been recorded for Temminck’s from Ireland to Thailand and
for Long-toed from Aden and Iran to Thailand. Finally, it may be
noted that Semipalmated occasionally searches floating seaweed,
Least is very prone to feed on floating vegetation, and Long-toed
trots over lily-pads.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
Observers attempting stint identification in Europe must take in-
to account all seven small Calidris breeding in the Holarctic. Nowa-
days four species occur regularly and one, probably two, others
have been recorded at least twice in the last six years. A full and
annually revised knowledge of Little Stints is the only safe start
to the identification of the six others. However, given close views
and a clear head, it appears that only silent, foot-hiding Red-necked
and Semipalmated in winter pose insoluble problems. Indeed, it
had become evident that the crux of the whole problem is no longer
the separation of Semipalmated from Little but the elimination of
Red-necked from this process.
The features that characterise the seven stints in first-autumn
dress are summarised in table 2. Arranging them into a key is
difficult and probably dangerous at this stage. I very much hope
that this paper will be sufficiently instructive and stimulating for
someone else to attempt final conclusions in due course, and we
shall all be served if my mistakes are quickly spotted.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Writing this paper would have been impossible without the aid of many people.
Of most assistance has been P. J. Grant who took a first draft on field test in
Canada in 1972 and worked with his customary accuracy on the Nearctic species.
He also helped me to achieve a proper balance in the finished paper. Of special
assistance have been P. R. Colston who kindly examined many skins and let me
have the benefit of his Australian experience, Dr I. C. T. Nisbet who has been
writing to me about stints since 1966, Sgt R. Kersley and F. T. H. Smith who
finally blew away the clouds over the Red-necked Stint, and M. Woodcock who
very kindly let me sight the proofs of the forthcoming guide to the birds of south-
east Asia. Notable contributions also came from D. G. Bell, D. J. Britton, J.
Collman, M. Gauntlett, Flt-Lt J. L. Gregory, B. D. Harding, Eric Hosking,
R. J. Johns, H. P. Medhurst, Dr R. J. Raines, W. Russell and M. Webster, and at
least one important point from H. G. Alexander, Lt-Col J. L. Chappie, Lt-Col
C. N. Clayden, C. D. Hutchinson, B. King, F. King, S. C. Madge, K. C. Osborne
and R. B. Sitson. For assistance in fieldwork, I have to thank P. F. Bonham,
R. E. Emmett and R. J. Johns in particular. For a sight of particularly instructive
1 6 Identification of small Calidris
photographs, I owe debts to B. D. Harding, P. Hope Jones, D. B. Hunt, K. Pellew,
R. J. Prytherch, Dr R. J. Raines and W. R. Spofford. Finally, I must acknowledge
the efforts of all observers who have submitted their records of rare stints to the
Rarities Committee and who in some cases still await its judgement. Hopefully
this paper will facilitate this, and my efforts and those of my colleagues on the
committee be considered worth the wait.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Since most of the information summarised in this paper came from three private
logs, over 40 letters and a search of over 30 individual books, papers and notes,
no attempt has been made to include references to all supporting texts. The
following list is confined to those mentioned in the paper and (in square brackets)
a selection of others considered to be essential sources of information.
Ahlquist, J. 1964. ‘Rufous-necked Sandpiper, Erolia ruficollis, in north-eastern
Ohio’. AiJc, 81: 432-433.
Backhurst, G. C., and Britton, P. L. 1969. ‘A record of Calidris subminuta from
Kenya’. Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl., 89: 121.
Broberg, L. 1967. ‘A Long-toed Stint Calidris subminuta in Ethiopia’. Ibis, 109: 440.
Clancey, P. A. 1964a. The Birds of Natal and fiduland. Edinburgh and London,
pp. 168-169.
1 964b. ‘The first records of the Rufous-necked Stint Calidris ruficollis from the
Ethiopian region’. Ibis, 106: 254-255.
Dementiev, G. P., and Gladkov, N. A. 1966-68. Birds of the Soviet Union. Israel
Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, vol. 3.
[Godfrey, W. E. 1966. The Birds of Canada. Ottawa, plate 27.]
[Henry, G. M. 1971. The Birds of Ceylon. London. Second edition, pp. 316, 318.]
Hollom, P. A. D. i960. The Popular Handbook of Rarer British Birds. London.
pp. 45-46, 48-51, plates 14-15.
Johns, R. J. 1970. ‘Peeps’. Birds of the World : 926-928.
[King, B., and Woodcock, M. In press. A Field Guide to the Birds of South East Asia.
plate 16.]
[Mathews, G. M., and Iredale, T. 1921. A Manualof the Birds of Australia. London,
pp. 131-132-]
Nisbet, I. C. T. 1963. ‘Western Sandpiper on Fair Isle, Shetland (1956)’. Brit.
Birds, 56: 55-58.
Peterson, R. T. 1961. A Field Guide to Western Birds. Boston, Mass, plate 32.
Ringleben, H. 1969. ‘Ein Rotkehlstrandlaufer, Calidris ruficollis, in Deutschland’.
J. Orn., no: 108-109.
Robbins, C. S., Bruun, B., and Zim, H. S. 1966. Birds of North America. New York,
pp. 1 24- 1 25.
[Slater, P. 1971. A Field Guide to Australian Birds. Edinburgh, pp. 305-307,
plate 32.]
Vaurie, C. 1965. The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna. Non-Passeriformes. London.
PP- 393-394> 404-
Voous, K. H. 1973. ‘List of recent Holarctic bird species. Non-passerines’. Ibis,
1 15: 612-638 (628).
[Witherby, H. F., Jourdain, F. C. R., Ticehurst, N. F., and Tucker, B. W.
1938-41. The Handbook of British Birds. London, vol. 4: 245-259, plate 1 10.]
D. I. M. Wallace, g Woodhill Rise, Heads Lane, Hessle, Hull, Yorkshire
hu 1 3 OHZ
Identification of small Calidris
J7
POSTSCRIPT
Photographs
It is very unfortunate that we are as yet unable to publish photographs of the
seven species of stints. Despite both private and public appeals (Brit. Birds, 66:
41 1 -41 2), those so far received feature only five species and only in the case of the
Little Stint is their standard good enough for reproduction. We are therefore
continuing the search in the hope of eventually publishing a full set of photographs,
and at the same time adding any new information that might be obtained from
discussion of the paper and from future fieldwork. Prints and transparencies, which
should be sent to Mr Wallace at the address opposite, w'ill be acknowledged and
then returned when finished with.
Review of certain past records
Throughout the preparation of this paper, we and the Hon. Secretary of the
Rarities Committee have received many letters from observers giving grounds
for doubting previous decisions on rare stint identifications. Some of the records
involved date back to the early years of the Rarities Committee and before. Our
correspondents have also urged a review of such records and its simultaneous
publication with the preceding paper. We accept in principle that a review is
necessary, but it should not be rushed. Furthermore, we hope that the initiative
in setting any record to right will not be left entirely to the Rarities Committee.
A case for reconsideration is best put forward by the observers directly involved in
the record, whether now or ten years ago. Eds
Mediterranean Gulls at Blackpill, Glamorgan
R. A. Hume and P. G. Lansdown
From November 1972 to late July 1973 Mediterranean Gulls Larus
melanocephalns were continually, though by no means daily, present
at Blackpill, Glamorgan, 18 different individuals being involved.
Blackpill is the part of Swansea Bay beach which attracts the
majority of the gulls in the area, due to a small stream which
runs out across the beach affording bathing facilities, a higher
stretch of beach giving a longer resting time for the birds before
each high tide, and a sand bar which remains uncovered except
during the higher tides.
OCCURRENCES AT BLACKPILL
A winter adult
b second-winter
C summer adult
d second-winter
e summer adult
1 2th November-3rd February, 21st March
i8th-30th November
23rd March-4th April
24th March
24th-25th March
i8
Mediterranean Gulls at Blackpill
f first-year
G first-year
H first-year
i first-year
j first-year
k first-year
L first-year
m summer adult
n second-summer
o summer adult
p summer adult
Q. second-summer
r second-summer
ioth April-8th May, 25th May, 4th June
14th April-ioth May, 1st June
3rd-8th May, 23rd-24th May, 27th June
4th-5th May
4th-8th May, 24th May, 1st June
16th May-20thjuly
I7th-27th May
30th June-2nd July, 1 ith-i 7th July
I2th-24th July
i7th-27th July
1 7 th- 1 8th July
i8th-23rd July
23rd-2 7 th July
At the time of writing (September 1973) there are still two Medi-
terranean Gulls at Blackpill, an adult and a second-year, but, being
in winter plumage, their individual identification is impossible.
Sharrock (1972), in his analysis of 285 records of Mediterranean
Gulls from 1958 to 1967, gave averages of 19 birds per year over
the whole of Britain and Ireland during 1958-62, and of 38 during
1963-67. The Blackpill observations, involving 18 birds in less
than a year from a single locality, suggest that this increasing trend
is continuing, and this is supported by conservative minima for
the whole of Britain of 53, 50 and 63 in 1971, 1972 and 1973 respec-
tively (P. F. Bonham in litt., from ‘Recent reports’ files).
Sharrock also compared the number of immatures and sub-adults
with the number of adults. From 1958 to 1962 immatures and sub-
adults comprised 20% of all those aged, and from 1963 to 1967 34%.
At Blackpill, 67% were immatures or sub-adults, reflecting the
increasing trend noted by Sharrock.
In his analysis of arrival dates, Sharrock stated: ‘There is clear
evidence, however, of a distinct arrival increasing throughout
July and reaching a peak in early August, probably continuing
throughout August, September and October, possibly even into
November.’ From his histogram (fig. 92) one can also make out a
secondary peak in mid-April. It is, perhaps, impracticable to com-
pare the pattern of first dates of 18 records with one of 285, but
the list on pages 17-18 shows clear peaks between late March and
mid-May, with another in mid-July, and no arrivals at all during
the August-September period which Sharrock gave as the most
frequent arrival time. It is interesting that four of the seven first-
year birds left during May to reappear in June, f and j after a gap of
one to two weeks, G after over three weeks and h after over a month,
thus illustrating the difficulty experienced by Sharrock in analysing
a series of records of birds not individually distinguished, some
or all of which may have been recorded as different individuals at
the same locality or nearby.
Mediterranean Gulls at Blackpill
19
BILL COLOUR
Adults
a Bright scarlet with small, sharply-defined brownish-black tip
c, e Rich red, apparently unmarked
m, p Red, with thin dark band, thicker on lower mandible
0 Red, with dark area on gonys, and yellow tip
Second-year
b Dingy pale orange-buff basal two-thirds, blending into blackish tip
d Dark, darker at tip, but not seen sufficiently close to establish colour
N Red, slightly duller than those of the summer adults, with dark band
(thicker on lower mandible) and red between this and a thinner, less
distinct, dark band isolating the yellowish tip
Q, r Red, with yellow tip and no dark mark whatsoever
First-year
F, o Orange or reddish, with distal third black and sharply defined
H Orange-red blending into blackish tip; some dark marks near gape
t, j Reddish-bufT blending into blackish tip, bird 1 having the larger tip
k Bright red with extensive, clean-cut black tip
1 Buffish with distal third black
All the first-year Mediterranean Gulls appeared to have very dark
or black bills at a distance, the patterns described above and
illustrated in fig. 1 on pages 20-21 being visible only on standing
birds at reasonably close range. It should be noted, however, that
observations elsewhere (and at Blackpill in previous years) have
produced individuals of each age group with black bills with just
a trace of deep red at the base, even at very close range.
LEG COLOUR
All adults had bright red legs, though these could appear almost
black at a distance. Of the second-year individuals, b and d had
very dark reddish, almost black legs, while those of N, Q> and R
were plum-coloured. The first-year birds all had dirty brownish-
red legs, g, 1 and j the reddest and f the darkest (almost black).
HEAD PATTERN
See fig. 1 on pages 20-21. All the first-year individuals staying
for a lengthy period (f, g, h and k) retained their original head
pattern throughout, except that the nape, and later the crown,
took on a dingy-grey appearance, though not strongly enough to
affect individual identification. Bird h arrived in May with a mottled
brownish hood, and when last seen nearly two months later had
basically the same pattern but with a blackish hood and a thin
ring round the throat (as in fig. 1). Bird K, however, did not change
in pattern over two months but gained the dingy nape and crown.
TAIL
Adults and second-year birds had pure white tails. First-year birds
20
Mediterranean Gulls at Blackpill
t-fi-H '73
Fig. i a. Head and bill patterns of nine Mediterranean Gulls Larus melanocephalus
at Blackpill, Glamorgan, during November 1972-June 1973. a, c and e were adults,
b and d second-year birds, and F to 1 first-year birds (see pages 17-19 for full
details)
Plate i. Gannet Sula bassana brooding two chirks together, Bass Rock. East
Lothian. July 1973; two days previously, none of the adults in this part of the
colony had more than the normal brood of one young (page 25) (photo: Peter Rowe
I
dim w '073
Plate 3. Stints in flight, all in first-autumn plumage: left. Least Sandpiper
Calidris minutilla : top centre. Western Sandpiper C. tnauri; right, Temminck’s
Stint C. temminckii ; and bottom, Long-toed Stint C. snbminuta. Flight identifi-
cation of stints is very difficult, but of the seven species these four exhibit
the most obvious distinguishing marks (pages 1-16) (drawn by D. I. M. Wallace
Plate 2 (opposite). The seven small species of the genus Calidris: see pages 4-10 for
detailed comparisons of all plumages (drawn by D. I. M. Wallace
Western Sandpiper C. mauri : 1 autumn flock. 2 breeding. 3 winter. 4 first autumn
Semipalmated Sandpiper C. pusilla: 5 autumn flock. 6 breeding. 7 first winter.
8 first autumn
Red-necked Stint C. ruficollis: 9 autumn flock. 10 adult winter, n first autumn
Little Stint C. rninuta: 12 autumn flock. 13 first winter, 14 breeding. 15 first
autumn
Least Sandpiper C. minutilla : 16 breeding. 17 first autumn. 18 autumn flock. 19
first winter
Temminck's Stint C. temminckn : 20 first autumn. 21 autumn party
Long-toed Stint C. snbminuta: 22 first autumn. 23 winter. 24 autumn flock
Plate 4. Lanner Falco biarmicus tearing up rodent stolen from a Black-winged
Kite Elams caeruleus, Kenya, September 1973 (pages 25-26) [photo: J. F. Reynolds).
Below, Wren Troglodytes troglodytes feeding young Cuckoo Cuculus canorus on green
larvae and centipedes, Shropshire, June 1973 (pages 26-27) [photo: N. A. J. Wilde )
Mediterranean Gulls at Blackpill
21
RM'13.
Fig. ib. Head and bill patterns of nine Mediterranean Gulls Larus melanocephalus
at Blackpill, Glamorgan, during May-July 1973. j to l were first-year birds,
n, q, and r second-year, and m, o and p adults (see pages 18-19 for full details)
22
Mediterranean Gulls at Blackpill
had a blackish to dark brown subterminal band, both narrower and
darker than that of an immature Common Gull L. canus (though this
did not seem a particularly useful field mark).
MANTLE
All birds had a pale grey mantle, a little paler than that of a Black-
headed Gull L. ridibundus. In bright light, however, both Black-
headed and Herring Gulls L. argentatus can look equally pale on the
mantle.
UPPERWING
Adults
All Same colour as mantle, fading to white on tips of primaries. (White
underwing useful for initial identification)
Second-year
B, D, n As adults, but with 3-4 short dark subterminal lines on primaries
Q, r As adults, but with 2 short dark subterminal lines on primaries
First-year (see fig. 2)
G Dark brown forewing, blackish-brown outer primaries and coverts,
blackish bar across secondaries breaking into series of dark marks
across edge of inner primaries, and pale grey midwing panel and inner
primaries (same colour as mantle)
f, H Much less distinct in flight — paler brown forewing, browner outer pri-
maries and coverts, similar hindwing bar and, consequently, less
contrasting wing panel
1, j, k, l Pale grey or buffish forewing, dark brown outer primaries and coverts,
very faded hindwing bar, and pale grey midwing not contrasting with
either forewing or mantle
Of all the first-year birds, G had the most distinct wing panel,
though it never appeared paler than the light grey mantle. (First-
Fig. 2. Upperwing patterns of seven first-year Mediterranean Gulls Larus tnelano-
cephalus at Blackpill, Glamorgan, during April-July 1973 (see pages 18, 22-23)
23
Mediterranean Gulls at Blackpill
year Common Gulls have wing panels paler than the mantle, and
their wings, though they show considerable variation, are browner
and less clear-cut, even the wing panel being buffish.) The white
spots on the inner webs of the dark outer primaries of the first-year
Mediterranean Gulls were seen only on a few occasions, usually
as the bird stretched a wing or was about to alight, thus spreading
the feathers.
DISCUSSION OF FIELD-CHARACTERS
Our observations are at variance with those of Grant and Scott
(1967) in several respects. They described ‘a black streak from
the bill through the eye’. On the Blackpill birds, however, the
streak did not originate from the bill in any individual, commencing
only just in front of the eye in all cases. Grant and Scott stated:
‘The bill of the immature appears black, but close views usually
reveal a trace of dark red at the base of the lower mandible.’ At
Blackpill the bills of all first-year birds (f-l) appeared dark at
a distance, but close views revealed that at least two-thirds was
medium coloured, varying from bright red to buffish, the tip being
black; P. J. Grant (in litt .) has agreed that this first-year coloration
was probably normal. Two of the second-summer birds (q and r)
had no trace of black on the bill, but these were not dealt with
in any detail by Grant and Scott.
Concerning the upperwing-pattern, it was stated that: ‘In
immatures the dark markings on the wing are black, even in strong
sunlight . . .’ On the Blackpill immatures, however, the outer pri-
maries varied from blackish-brown to medium brown, rarely
appearing black, and the bar along the secondaries varied from
blackish to faded brown; thus the wing-pattern was less distinct
from that of an immature Common Gull than Grant and Scott
suggested. Discussing first-winter individuals, they wrote that ‘The
pale area on the wing, caused by the almost white secondary and
inner primary coverts and inner primaries, is a good field mark . . .’
At Blackpill, the contrast between dark and pale on the upperwing
was more obvious in the Mediterranean Gulls than in the Common
Gulls due to the more clean-cut lines of the dark areas, not to the
panels being paler. Mr Grant’s illustration of the first-winter bird
(plate 48, top left) shows the wing panel as virtually white, con-
trasting with the grey mantle, but on none of the Blackpill birds was
the wing panel any paler than the mantle.
Lastly, we did not find wing-tip pattern a useful field distinction
between first-year Mediterranean Gulls and first-year Common
Gulls, and thus we agree with the views expressed by Mr Grant
in the series of letters on this subject between him and Dr W. R. P.
Bourne (Brit. Birds , 61: 138-143; 63: 91-93; 64: 285-288).
24
Mediterranean Gulls at Blackpill
AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
The following aggressive behaviour was noted by over half of the
Mediterranean Gulls towards Common Gulls and Black-headed
Gulls, and more particularly towards Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla.
A hitherto inactive Mediterranean Gull, among equally inactive
gulls of other species gathered on the beach prior to high tide,
would suddenly lunge at another bird, sometimes running up to
five metres to do so, passing and ignoring other gulls during its
approach. The bird thus attacked either evaded the lunge or, if
taken unawares (frequently asleep), received a hard downward
stab around the rear end or a horizontal thrust about the head or
neck. It normally moved up to a metre and received no more
attention from the Mediterranean Gull, though a similar attack was
sometimes made towards another gull after a further period of inac-
tivity. There seemed to be no reason for this behaviour and the only
consequence was that the Mediterranean Gull took up the position
of the attacked bird for a time.
WALK
Each individual had the same gait: a fairly high-stepping walk in
which the body remained at a constant height and position while
the legs moved easily and rapidly. This walk is presumably due to
the longer legs of this species. The only other gulls seen at Blackpill
during this period with a similar walk were two Ring-billed Gulls
L. delawarensis [Brit. Birds, 66: 509-517) which also had relatively
long legs. The Mediterranean Gulls tended to walk about more
frequently than the other species, sometimes walking up to 50 metres
through an otherwise static flock.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank all the observers who supplied records and helped to
clarify the situation, in particular M. Davies, K. E. Vinicombe and D. R. Waugh.
REFERENCES
Grant, P. J., and Scott, R. E. 1967. ‘Identification of immature Mediterranean
Gulls’. Brit. Birds, 60: 365-368.
Sharrock, J. T. R. 1972. ‘Scarce migrants in Britain and Ireland during 1958-67.
Part 7. Mediterranean Gull, White-winged Black Tern and Gull-billed Tern’.
Brit. Birds, 65: 187-202.
R. A. Hume, 31 Lime Grove, Burntwood, Walsall, Staffordshire WS7 oha
P. G. Lansdown, 14 Can-yr-aderyn, Pinewood, Morriston, Swansea,
Glamorgan
Notes
Gannet nest with two chicks My wife and I were on the Bass
Rock, East Lothian, in July 1973 photographing Gannets Sula
bassana at their nests. On our first visit we saw nothing out of the
ordinary. During the following two days there was some very heavy
rain, and on our next visit immediately afterwards we found that
some of the nests had been washed away. In the area where we had
been photographing before, one of the Gannets was now brooding
two chicks together, one larger than the other (plate 1). We are
fairly certain that we would not have missed this on our first visit,
and the photographs we took of this part of the colony before the
storms appear to corroborate this. Peter Rowe
20 Ormsby Road, Convey Island, Essex ss8 onh
We showed this note and the three photographs sent by Mr Rowe
to Dr J. B. Nelson, author of many papers on this species (for
example, in Brit. Birds, 58: 233-288, 313-336). He comments as
follows: ‘It seems to me more likely that the larger of the two chicks
got there after disturbance by man. In terrain such as this, no
dislodgement of nest material could be sudden enough or total
enough to cause the chick to fall — it would (in the very unlikely
event of the nest being dislodged) simply scramble on to the site
where the nest had been. On a tiny ledge on a sheer cliff, a nest
could be dislodged, but then the chick would almost certainly fall
into the sea, and there seems little possibility, in the location in
these photographs, that the chick had come from a sheer cliff nest
above. If it arrived by dislodgement, there would be nothing un-
usual in the adults feeding it. The inequality in the size of the two
chicks, however, would almost certainly have led to the death of
the smaller, whether or not it was the rightful occupant, since the
larger would dominate and attack it.’ Eds
Piracy by Lanner On 16th September 1973, in Nairobi National
Park, Kenya, I saw a Lanner Falco biarmicus flying fairly low over
open grassland with scattered Acacia and Balanites trees. On one
of the latter a Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus had just landed
with a rodent, roughly equivalent in size to a half to three-quarters
grown Brown Rat Rattus norvegicus. The Lanner flew at the Black-
winged Kite which, taking to evasive flight, dropped its prey; this
was seized by the falcon and carried to open ground where it was
devoured in about 25 minutes (see plate 4a). The Lanner then flew
to a nearby post where it stayed dozing and occasionally preening
for an hour before flying away.
25
26
Notes
The usual prey of the Lanner is a wide variety of birds, taken
both on the wing and on the ground, and it is also recorded as
taking mammals, reptiles and even insects, but Brown and Amadon
(1968, Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World ) did not record it
feeding by piracy. J. F. Reynolds
P.O. Box 40584, Nairobi, Kenya
Observations on Wren rearing young Cuckoo On 19 th May
1973, in the grounds of Dudmaston Hall, Shropshire, I and a
companion discovered the nest of a Wren Troglodytes troglodytes which
had been parasitised by a Cuckoo Cuculus canorus. The nest, in the
form of a complete ball some 1 7 cm in diameter, was 50 cm above
the ground among brambles close to the foot of a Scots pine tree.
The entrance had been neatly enlarged, presumably by the Cuckoo,
to an opening measuring 6 cm wide by 5 cm high, and the contents,
which consisted of five Wren’s eggs in addition to the Cuckoo’s
egg, were clearly visible in the cup. The Cuckoo’s egg had a dark
blue-green background colour and was uniformly flecked with fine
red-brown marks, being very similar to egg no. 6 on plate XIII in
The Popular Handbook of British Birds (1965 edition) by P. A. D.
Hollom.
I revisited the nest on 2nd June and found the Cuckoo hatched
and occupying the whole of the cup. The five Wren’s eggs, all
still intact, were lying on the ground beneath the nest. When I
again returned on 8th June, the young Cuckoo was well grown and
feathered and measured 18 cm from bill to tip of tail. It was resting
on what remained of the Wren’s nest. The whole of the top of the
nest had become detached and had been pushed aside. I was able
to observe the feeding behaviour throughout the entire day from
a photographic hide which I set up some three metres from the
nest (see plate 4b). Food was brought by only one of the pair of
Wrens, probably the female, distinguishable from its mate by its
paler and more worn plumage. The other occasionally accompanied
its mate to the vicinity of the nest but always perched at least
two metres from it. The Cuckoo made no sound and did not call
for food but, whenever the Wren came within sight, whether carry-
ing food or not, it opened its orange-red gape wide. Small birds of
other species promoted no response from the Cuckoo. Feeding took
place at intervals of 4^-13 minutes, eight- or nine-minute intervals
being the most common. The food was of only two types: green
larvae approximately 2.5 cm long brought singly, and centipedes
of a similar length brought in what appeared to be pairs but which
I suspect were single creatures either folded over or cut in two. The
green larvae formed the larger part of the diet, the Cuckoo being
fed perhaps five larvae to one centipede.
Notes
27
After most feeds the Wren looked round the nest for a faecal
sac, though the Cuckoo produced them only at approximately two-
hourly intervals. Even though the Cuckoo was sitting on a relatively
flat platform, it went through the motion of ejecting the faecal sac
over the edge of an imaginary nest. Between feeds the Cuckoo
dozed with eyes closed, but it was instantly alert when predators
such as Jays Garrulus glandarius and Carrion Crows Corvus corone
corone called or came within sight. Other birds, for example Turtle
Doves Streptopelia turtur and Blackbirds Turdus merula, calling nearby
did not disturb it. The Cuckoo left the nest during the following
week and could not be located on 1 5th June. N. A. J. Wilde
ig Lytton Avenue , Penn, Wolverhampton WV4 4.HL
These notes provide an interesting comparison with the obser-
vations of Brian Curtis and the comments by the Reverend Edward
A. Armstrong, author of The Wren (1955), in Brit. Birds, 62 : 1 1 7-1 19.
Mr Curtis saw only one Wren come to the nest throughout the 16
days of observation. It became so tame that eventually he was able
to watch feeding activities from a distance of a metre, without a
hide. The food included moths and spiders as well as caterpillars
and other larvae; the feeding rate was variable and became decidedly
faster when the Cuckoo was well grown ; and the Cuckoo called and
quivered its wings as soon as it first sighted the Wren with food.
The Wren also spent much time preening near the nest. One
particular point of interest in the present note is the differing reac-
tions of the young Cuckoo to other birds. Eds
Domed nest of Chaffinch With reference to I. J. Ferguson-Lees’
note on a nest of a Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs partly roofed over
(Brit. Birds, 39: 213), it may be of interest to record the following.
On 29th April 1963 I was walking by a laurel hedge on the edge of
some woodland near Corsham, Wiltshire, when I disturbed a
Chaffinch which emerged from an egg-shaped construction of grass
inside the hedge. On closer investigation I found a domed structure
of coarse dead grass, three-quarters of a metre from the ground,
21 cm high and 1 1.5 cm wide, and thickest at the base. There were
a few long pieces of grass hanging from the base of the nest, while the
roughly interwoven grass at the top was 12 mm thick. The entrance
was a spherical hole about 35 mm in diameter, situated half-way up
the nest and facing the line of the hedge. The nest contained three
normally coloured eggs. I visited it again on 6th May to find that
the eggs had been sucked, probably by Wood Mice Apodemus sylvaticus .
Closer examination revealed that inside the grass structure w:as a nor-
mal type of nest, a moss cup lined with hair. Julian C. Rolls
Tringa, ji Fleetwood Close, Neston, Corsham, Wiltshire SN13 9TF
Letters
Scope of ‘British Birds’ and seasonal analyses of records I
could not agree less with A. Reynolds or more with Michael Thomas
{Brit. Birds, 66: 408-409). To call ‘Recent reports’ by this title is a
misnomer. By the time one receives British Birds the records are
long outdated, and a certain percentage is only based on rumour.
I would much rather read an authenticated quarterly summary.
The advantages of quarterly reporting are enormous, and such
summaries could show, for example, migrational trends and breed-
ing successes. The space thus taken up would be used in a far more
meaningful manner than at present. Regarding the setting up of an
extensive network of regional recorders, I have always understood
that this system was already in being (see Brit. Birds, 66 : 325-328) :
certainly it has long been true of Bedfordshire, where we also have
a local ‘rarities committee’ which continually vets unusual records.
Mr Reynolds is surely suggesting that the contents of British Birds
become very insular. The amount of research being devoted to
wholly indigenous bird populations must be limited, and publication
of major papers on these should remain largely in the appropriate
journals. I would prefer to read a short note on the behaviour of
Greenfinches at peanut feeders than a five-page article ! Again, the
present policy of British Birds in publishing identification papers
is, in my opinion, the correct one, and I would like to see this
aspect expanded. In this day of enlightened identification science
and greater coverage, British birdwatchers need to know the finer
points of jizz, plumage and other features of vagrants. For example
I certainly enjoyed P. J. Grant’s Ring-billed Gull paper {Brit. Birds,
66: 115-118) that Mr Reynolds included among ‘foreign material’,
and would point out that at the time of its publication the first
of this species to be recorded in Britain was being observed in
Swansea Bay, Glamorgan {Brit. Birds, 66:509-512).
Now that the subscription rate has been increased, I believe that
British Birds should adopt an even wider scope and become more of a
‘popular’ journal to attract new readers: there are undoubtedly
more amateur field-workers than senior students. I also think that
the title of the journal should remain unchanged. B. D. Harding
26 Woodlands Avenue, Houghton Regis, Dunstable, Bedfordshire
A. Reynolds’ letter on the scope of British Birds has been some-
thing of a shock for me. In my opinion it shows a great degree of
narrowness, which I can only call unscientific. Like the editors,
I think that British bird life must be seen in the frame in which
it takes place, that is in a natural unit (mainly the western Pale-
28
Letters
29
arctic) and not within the arbitrarily fixed boundaries of Great
Britain. How, according to Mr Reynolds’ view, should Ireland be
treated ?
So a note on a British bird in its wintering grounds in Africa
can be of much more importance than one on its behaviour in
Britain. As the Greenshank note from Nairobi does not impress Mr
Reynolds (and other readers, who I regret he does not name), I ask
him whether, for example, a note should not be printed in British
Birds on the ecological situation in the Sahel zone, which might have
a great influence on British breeding YVhitethroats and other birds
that have greatly decreased? Should the results of the successful
British wader-ringing expeditions to Iceland, Greenland or Morocco
not be noted by readers of British Birds ? Should these expeditions of
British ornithologists be stopped? Will he perhaps disregard impor-
tant factors in the life of British birds only because they do not take
place in Britain? If so, he will never find and understand the
really important connections in many species: finding connections
is science!
Reviewing foreign books, which are the results of scientific
researches in other countries, seems to me necessary too. The
Handbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas is by far the most important work on
central European birds, of a higher standard than Witherby’s
Handbook of British Birds', should it be neglected in Britain? Here, by
the way, I come to a point of general criticism of British papers:
literature from the Continent is often not consulted, though British
ornithologists should be aware that also on the Continent much
ornithological work is done.
Of course, an article on penguins in the Antarctic would be out
of place in British Birds, but the scope now maintained is just
adequate. Many really important scientific results can be obtained
only by international co-operation, not by working in isolation.
Concerning the seasonal analyses of records proposed by Michael
Thomas, I think that ‘Recent reports’ in its present form is valuable
though a little unsatisfactory, since the data are unchecked, com-
parisons on an international scale are not possible, and homo-
geneous periods (breeding, migration, winter) are subdivided. Peri-
odic summaries would be preferable, either quarterly or covering
the periods March-June (spring migration and breeding), July-
October (autumn migration) and November-February (winter).
The latter arrangement seems somewhat more practicable than a
regular three-month summary, since the spring migration and breed-
ing season (which largely overlap) and the winter period would not
then be split as they would by a quarterly schedule. Besides being
better adapted to the movements of birds through the year, such
periodic summaries would offer two further advantages: more
30
Letters
checking would be possible, and the inclusion of the reports in
British Birds would be easier, since you would not always have to
find space to print ‘Recent reports’ in every issue as at present.
Michael Speckmann
Wykstrasse io, D-44 Munster , West Germany
I agree entirely with the views expressed by A. Reynolds in the
September issue, and have had the same experience of increasing
criticisms from many quarters of the undue emphasis on material
from abroad. The main birdwatching activities of the majority of
your readers are necessarily based in this country.
I have always regretted that British Birds suspended some years
ago their practice of presenting reviews and summaries of the annual
reports of the various bird clubs and natural history societies.
Let us have more details of what is happening in our own environ-
ment. John Lord
Orduna , 155 Tamworth Road, Sutton Coldfield, Warwickshire B75 6dy
On any rational basis it is difficult to engender any sympathy for
A. Reynolds’ aversion to reading about the habits of his native
Greenshanks while they are wintering in Kenya. Although I confess
to approaching semi-senility, having had my first note in British
Birds in 1943 (a report of a Dartford Warbler in Caernarvonshire in
1932 when I was a member of the Lower Fourth and which I
persuaded the late Bernard Tucker to accept — a report which has
since caused me considerable unease), to me Mr Reynolds’ views
brand him as being a part of the Dodo age. In addition to the
obvious and compelling reasons for an all-embracing approach to
ornithology in the Palearctic which should be reflected in your
pages, a rapidly growing band of bird enthusiasts are clearly keen
to widen their horizons and this is shown whenever the amateurs
gather together. Mr Reynolds can speak only for a small minority
whose purity of thought will lead them inevitably to concentrate on
the Red Grouse to the exclusion of all else.
Michael Thomas, on the other hand, is to be commended.
Between the scientific austerities of the Rarities Committee and
the worst excesses of those suffering from the twitching syndrome
( vide the man whose wife managed to deflect him via the telephone
and the AA at Newmarket from a Bluethroat in Norfolk to a Wall-
creeper in Dorset) lies a considerable body of bird people who are
deeply interested in the migration patterns of Ross’s Gull and its
appearance at Teesmouth, for example, and who would like to see
woven into the reports comments on such things as the effects of the
splendid 1973 breeding season in the Arctic on numbers of migrants,
arrival dates and so on. ‘Recent reports’ is titillating and very worth-
Letters
31
while but a little akin to the flavour of a gossip column, because
there is an implication of capriciousness in the selection of items
stemming from the casual method by which the intelligence is
gleaned and edited. The practical difficulties of organisation are
awe-inspiring, but a more systematic and timely treatment as
suggested would, I suspect, be much to the taste of your middle-of-
the-road readers. Derek Barber
The Manor Farm , Stanley Pontlarge, Winchcombe , Cheltenham, Gloucester-
shire GL54 5HD
Having read A. Reynolds’ letter of criticism regarding the
inclusion in British Birds of what he and his friends call ‘foreign
material’, I would like to express my disagreement with him and to
give my wholehearted support to the editors for the policy they have
been pursuing.
I have been a subscriber for well over 50 years and, no doubt
like many of your readers, have made many trips abroad. I have
gained much knowledge from the information published on not only
the habits of what we class as British birds — many of which spend
but a short part of their lives in this country' — but also (and possibly
of far greater importance) the differences, however slight, in plum-
age and song of closely allied species or subspecies in Britain,
Europe, North Africa, south-west Asia, or even further afield. To
an ornithologist all matters pertaining to a species are of interest, no
matter where the information is collected or the observations made.
I feel sure Mr Reynolds and his friends will find a wealth of infor-
mation in local publications about birds but, for those of us who wish
to increase our knowledge, may British Birds continue to publish
material of ornithological importance without regard to what some
people may consider foreign sources. Alastair Anderson
39 Royal Terrace, Edinburgh eh 7 5AH
A. Reynolds’ letter raises a valid, but very debatable, question.
Avian mobility makes a nonsense of international boundaries, and
the modern British ornithologist (and reader of British Birds) is no
longer as insular in his outlook as were many of his predecessors of
pre-war days. He is in fact (and rightly) European in his approach.
In this climate it is surely absurd that, because of the journal’s
title, it should be debarred from studies of, say, the Short-toed
Eagle, found in France but not on the British list, while admitting
material on some Asiatic or American warbler which has wandered
off course, been recorded, and thereby earned the courtesy title of a
British bird.
At the same time, Mr Reynolds has a point. There is a difference
between being insular and being cosmopolitan. For me, the paper
32
Letters
by D. I. M. Wallace on birds in Iran, also in the September issue, is
stretching the boundaries of ‘British’ to the limit. The percentage
of your subscribers who are seriously interested in Iran must, I am
sure, be small. It is certainly not the sort of material to attract new
subscribers, or indeed to retain old ones. To my mind there is no
doubt that, despite the number of editorial names connected with
it, this paper should have been regarded as outside the scope of this
journal.
I appreciate that the difficulty is to know where to draw the line.
Clearly no definite geographical boundary can be given. This
must be left to the discretion of the editors. I would, however,
suggest that they look hard — and twice — at all material submitted
on birds east and south of the Mediterranean shore-line, and that
they ask themselves, with the readership of British Birds in mind,
whether such papers would not be more suitable for publication
in the Ibis, or some such ornithological journal with global coverage,
rather than for one entitled British Birds. George Yeates
Oldstead, High Birstwith, Harrogate, Yorkshire
We have received five more letters replying to Mr Reynolds,
three in disagreement and two supporting him to some extent,
stressing that a balance must be struck and suggesting a readership
survey. In addition, we have also received three further letters on
seasonal summaries of reports, and we thank all those who have
written on either topic for their many useful suggestions. Eds
News and comment Robert Hudson
About-turn in Belgium In ‘News and comment’, October 1972 {Brit. Birds, 65:
448), I gave the welcome news that Belgian bird protection laws had been revised
so as to prohibit the large-scale trapping, for food and caging, that had given
Belgium such a deservedly bad reputation in west European conservation circles.
At that time, the Minister concerned announced that his Department was looking
at a formula that would permit indigenous birds to be taken for caging in a
moderated and controlled manner; and one now learns that the Belgian Govern-
ment has bowed to pressure from the cage-bird lobby, declaring an open season
from 1 oth October to 15th November. A quota for 1973 was fixed at 120,000 birds,
restricted to finches and buntings, ranging from 60,000 Chaffinches down to 400
each of Hawfinch, Crossbill, Yellowhammer, Corn and Reed Buntings. All those
intending to trap wild birds will have to register their names and catches with the
Administration des Eaux et Forets, be of Belgian nationality, over 21, without
criminal convictions, and have sufficient knowledge of birds; but, as Belgian
ornithologists have pointed out, the last requirement cannot be tested, and in any
case there is not the machinery to ensure that the stated quotas are not exceeded.
News and comment
33
Breeding of Peregrines in captivity The Cornell University Laboratory of
Ornithology, New York, claims that it can breed Peregrines in captivity on a
sufficiently large scale to provide a surplus for falconers and for restocking natural
sites (see ‘News and comment’, September 1972). This view has been challenged
in the U.S.A. on the grounds that the difficulties of domestic propagation in falcons
will prevent captive-breeding on a practical scale. However, Cornell’s Peregrine
Fund Newsletter no. 1 , recently to hand, shows that a technique has been mastered.
In 1973 their four pairs of Peregrines laid 41 eggs (in ten clutches), which were
placed in an incubator: 26 proved fertile, 22 hatched and 20 young were reared,
a highly satisfactory result. These successfully reproducing falcons are all eyasses —
birds taken as nestlings — and experience has shown that these, together with
captive-bred birds, will breed easily in confinement, unlike wild-caught adults.
Based on their 1973 results, Cornell point out that by 1976, when they have 20
such pairs of Peregrines, they could produce over 100 young a year for restocking
programmes; their next task is to experiment on the best ways of ‘hacking’ the
juveniles into the wild, preferably without the high post-fledging mortality
experienced under natural conditions.
Feral parakeets near London A number of reports during the last three
years in the bulletins of the London Natural History Society, Kent Ornitho-
logical Society and Surrey Bird Club suggest that at least one species of parakeet
is developing feral populations in three separate areas south of London. These
reports have referred to ‘Ring-necked’, ‘Rose-ringed’ and ‘Grey-breasted’ Parakeets,
though it would seem that Psittacula krameri of Africa and south Asia, the most
commonly imported member of the genus, is the one intended in most instances.
In the Southfleet/Northfleet/Gravesend/Shorne area of Kent feral parakeets
have been present since 1969, in which year a family party was seen at Southfleet.
Also from 1969, small numbers have been present in the Bromley/Park Langley/
Shirley/Croydon area on the borders of Kent and Surrey. Proven instances of
feral breeding there have been few, but a pair certainly nested successfully in the
wild near Croydon in 1 97 1 ; and in 1972 and 1973 display and nest-site prospecting
was noted at Park Langley, where a party of eleven ‘long-tailed parakeets’ was
seen in March 1973. The third area is Claygate and Esher, Surrey, where a feral
pair was seen in late 1970, successful breeding proved in 1971, and a party of six
seen in February 1972. Information on feral parakeets in the Gravesend area is
sought by B. Dalton, 31 Clarence Place, Gravesend, Kent, and in the Bromley/
Beckenham area by C. P. Carpenter, 162 Wickham Way, Beckenham, Kent. It
is desirable that the histories of the birds be followed in case Psittacula krameri
becomes an established breeder. It remains to be seen whether this tropical species
could survive a really severe British winter in a feral state, but it is known to be
hardy in captivity. It is not without interest that the Monk or Quaker Parakeet
Alycopsitta monachus of South America has in recent years established feral pop-
ulations in the U.S.A. as far north as New York, and at least one eradication pro-
gramme has been initiated.
County boundary changes On 1st April 1974 a new system of county boun-
daries will come into effect in England and Wales, the changes being relatively
minor in some regions but major in others. In England six new Metropolitan
Counties will be created, and large portions of some existing counties will be split
off and merged with others to make entirely new ones, such as Humberside,
Cumbria, Cleveland, Avon, and combined Hereford-}- Worcester and Cam-
bridge-}-Huntingdon; while Wales will be divided into five redefined counties.
These changes will have serious repercussions for naturalists, since most recording
work has been on a county basis ; county natural history societies (and naturalists’
trusts) must now choose whether to adhere to their existing boundaries, opt for
34
News and comment
the new ones, or compromise. This matter was discussed at length at the third
conference of local bird report editors, organised by the British Trust for Orni-
thology and held in Bristol on 3rd November 1973. This was not the kind of meet-
ing at which ultimate decisions could be taken, since local societies are autonomous
bodies, each with its own policy committee; but there was a frank exchange of
views, from which it appeared that the majority of English county ornithological
and natural history societies favoured retaining their traditional areas as far as
possible, at least for the present, with liaison between adjacent societies for the
exchange of records (where coverage overlapped) and to ensure that no areas
remained uncovered by a bird report. It was clear that loyalties to present county
boundaries are strong, though it was recognised that this would not be so for the
next generation of birdwatchers. Frank Gribble, opening the discussion, made a
case for some amalgamations of local ornithological societies, so that there would
be fewer English bird reports, each covering a wider area; he pointed out that the
West Midland Bird Club had shown this to be feasible by satisfactorily covering
three counties (Staffordshire, Warwickshire and Worcestershire). This plea was
supported by delegates from Wales and Scotland, for which there are national
bird reports as well as a variety of local ones. After lengthy discussions on whether
this two-tier system could be adopted in England, I. J. Ferguson-Lees proposed
that the question be referred back to the Report Editors’ Committee of the B.T.O.,
to suggest a subdivision of England into about eight regions and to offer recom-
mendations on how such regional bird reports might be financed. This proposal was
adopted by the conference.
Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds
Recent reports — October D. A. Christie
These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
This summary concerns October, a month in which short anticyclonic spells
alternated with westerly weather from Atlantic depressions. Following widespread
gales at the end of September, the first week became fairly settled and, as a high
pressure area moved south over the Continent, some large falls were recorded,
especially on the east coast. This was followed by a short cold spell with winds
mainly in the north and east when further influxes of passerines occurred. In the
second half of the month there was a short period of wet westerly weather with
strong winds which later became more settled, and more arrivals took place with
numbers of winter visitors increasing generally throughout Britain and Ireland.
TUBENOSES, SPOONBILLS AND WILDFOWL
During the gales at the very beginning of October, a Manx Shearwater Puffinus
puffmus was found in the porch of a house at Badicaul-by-Kyle (Ross-shire) and a
Storm Petrel Hydrohates pelagicus landed on the deck of a ship at Kyle pier; a
Leach’s Petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa was seen at Spurn (Yorkshire) on 3rd, and
three Balearic Shearwaters P. p. mauretanicus passed Bardsey (Caernarvonshire)
on 9th. Off Cape Clear Island (Co. Cork) there was a Little Shearwater P.
assirnilis on 6th, three Great P. gravis on 9th and a Cory’s Calonectris diomedea on
nth. Also during this period, 16 Great Shearwaters and 35 Storm Petrels,
together with 1,375 Gannets Sula bassana, were counted on a voyage between
Swansea (Glamorgan) and Cork on 7th. During the month as a whole, 45 Sooty
Shearwaters P. griseus were reported from six places on the coasts of Aberdeen-
shire, Northumberland and Yorkshire, with a maximum of 18 south at Seaton
35
Recent reports — October
Sluice (Northumberland) on ioth. An immature Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia was
seen at Capel Fleet (Kent) on 30th, but as in September there were no reports of
the rarer herons.
Wildfowl counts on 14th returned high totals of 10,200 Teal Anas crecca and
3,800 Pintail A. acuta on the Cheshire side of the Mersey and 2,050 Teal and
1,600 Pintail on the Ribble (Lancashire). Long-tailed Ducks Clangula hyernalis
were widely reported in England, mainly from the east coast though four were
seen together at three places off the Hampshire coast on 13th and a drake was
at Whiteford (Glamorgan) from 14th; 52 had gathered at Ross (Northumberland)
by 28th, while in Scotland 106 had been present with 1,320 Eiders Somateria
mollissima at Murcar (Aberdeenshire) on 13th. Two drake King Eiders S. specta-
bilis were off Holborn Head (Caithness) on t8th, and a drake Surf Scoter Mela-
nitta perspicillata found among a flock of Common Scoters M. nigra off Bamburgh
(Northumberland) on 25th was still present in January 1974. There were 3,000
Greylag Geese Anser anser at Cornhill-on-Tweed (Northumberland) on 28th, while
Pink-footed Geese A. brachyrhynchus numbered over 5,000 by mid-month on the
south Lancashire mosses. A Bean Goose A.fabalis was at Cley (Norfolk) from 21st
until 17th November and another was seen on Fenham Flats (Northumberland)
on 25th. Reports of Brent Geese Branta bernicla were received from twelve places,
including one inland at Bough Beech Reservoir (Kent) on 13th, flocks of 100 or
more in Langstone Flarbour (Hampshire) and flying south at Minsmerc (Suffolk),
and 535 pale-bellied birds B. b. hrota on Lough Foyle (Co. Londonderry) on 14th.
Unfortunately we do not have any October figures from Foulness (Essex) but record
numbers were noted there in November and will be dealt with in the next summary.
Barnacle Geese B. leucopsis, reported from eight localities, included 150 in
the Floly Island area of Northumberland on 7th; on Cape Clear one on 1 6th, two
on 17th and two on 21st were new to the island list. The largest gathering of
Whooper Swans Cygnus cygnus reported was of 197 at Lough Beg (Cos. Antrim/
Londonderry) on 14th; in all, 308 were counted in Northumberland during
October. The first Bewick’s Swan C. bewickii was at Egginton gravel pits (Derby-
shire) on 13th; subsequently this species was reported from nine places, mainly
from 22nd, far the largest number being 205 (22 juveniles) on the Ouse Washes
RSPB Reserve (Cambridgeshire) on 29th, a very high count for October.
RAPTORS
One of the most interesting features of October was an exceptional influx of
Rough-legged Buzzards Buteo lagopus from Fenno-Scandia (and also, to some
extent, of Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus and Merlins Falco columbarius) . After an
early record in Lancashire in September (Brit. Birds, 66: 544), the first October
reports were of single birds at Formby Point (Lancashire) on 12th and 13th, at
Harrow-on-the-Hill (Middlesex) on 13th, and in Northamptonshire at Hollowell
Reservoir and near Brockhall on 14th. From 17th there was a huge influx, mostly
on the east coast of England; records came from Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, East
Anglia, Kent, Middlesex, Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire. Although it is
impossible to assess the degree of duplication, reports suggest a total of at least
70 individuals. An indication of the size of the influx is given by the following
figures: at least 30 birds in Norfolk between Holme and Winterton during 20th-
27th, including nine at Cley on 26th; at least eight in Kent; and six in the Beachy
Head area of Sussex on 21st. The last time such a passage of Rough-legged Buzzards
was recorded in Britain was in the autumn of 1966 (Brit. Birds, 61 : 449-455).
Honey Buzzards Pernis apivorus and Montagu’s Harriers C. pygargus were
both recorded in Scilly, single birds on Tresco on 17th and St Mary’s from 6th to
8th respectively. A Marsh Harrier C. aeruginosas was also on Tresco, on 6th, and
another Honey Buzzard was watched at Pennington (Hampshire) on 21st. Single
Ospreys Pandion haliaetus were noted at Langstone Harbour from 5th to 9th, Holy-
36 Recent reports — October
well Ponds (Northumberland) on 7th and Nettlestead (Kent) on 20th, and birds
stayed on from September at Bittell (Worcestershire) until 2nd and at Luton Hoo
(Bedfordshire) until 10th. The Hobby F. subbuteo seen at Fair Isle (Shetland) in
September {Brit. Birds, 66: 544) remained until 3rd October, and other singles
were seen at Walton-in-Gordano (Somerset) on 14th and at Minsmere on 16th.
Lastly yet another Red-footed Falcon F. vespertinus was recorded in an exceptional
year for this species, this time at Barrow Gurney Reservoirs (Somerset) on 4th.
A Corncrake Crex crex appeared on Lundy (Devon) on 4th, and Spotted Crakes
Porzana porzana turned up at Fair Isle, Cley, Framlingham (Suffolk), Sandwich Bay
(Kent), Chew Valley Lake (Somerset) and the River Exe (Devon), while singles
remained from August at the last locality and at Tring Reservoirs (Hertfordshire)
{Brit. Birds, 66: 502). An adult male Little Crake P. parva was identified on St
Agnes (Scilly) on 9th.
WADERS
American vagrants included Pectoral Sandpipers Calidris melanotos at Tring Res-
ervoirs on 3rd, Dibden Bay (Hampshire) on 10th and 13th, and Chew Valley Lake
on 13th and 14th. At the last place there was also a Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Tryngiles subruficollis on 3rd, and another stayed at Shotton (Flintshire) from 18th
until at least 21st. A Short-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus griseus was reported
between Sandwich Bay and Deal from 7th to 11th, and a Lesser Yellowlegs
Tringa Jlavipes at Wisbech sewage farm (Lincolnshire/Norfolk) on 11th. Small
Calidris sandpipers from the Nearctic continued to be reported: Baird’s C.
bairdii on Skokholm (Pembrokeshire) on 5th and 6th and in Gower (Glamorgan)
on 14th, single Semipalmated C. pusilla at Sutton Bingham Reservoir (Dorset/
Somerset) from 18th to 20th and at Durleigh Reservoir (Somerset) on 22nd and
23rd, a Least C. minutilla on the Stour estuary (Kent) on 22nd, and a Western
C. mauri at Warsash (Hampshix'e) on 27th. There were also single White-rumped
Sandpipers C. fuscicollis at Chew Valley Lake on 14th, Thornham Harbour
(Norfolk) on 24th, the Bann estuary (Co. Antrim) from 27th to 30th, and Deerness
(Orkney) on 28th, and two at Lough Beg on the last date. A Wilson’s Phalarope
Phalaropus tricolor was at Freckleton (Lancashire) from 4th to 9th and another at
Cley on 21st.
Palearctic vagrants were a Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus at
Englefield Green (Surrey) on 10th, a Great Snipe Gallinago media on St Agnes on
13th and another on St Martin’s (also Scilly) on 21st, and two Sharp-tailed Sand-
pipers C. acuminata. The one which caused most excitement stayed at Shotton
from 14th until at least 21st and was seen by scores of observers; the second was
watched at Morfa Harlech (Merioneth) on 14th and 15th. If accepted these will
be only the ninth and tenth records of this Asiatic wader, which breeds in north-
east Siberia and winters in Australasia. Among the scarcer migrants, Dotterels
Eudromias morinellus occurred on Fair Isle until 8th, on St Mary’s on 13th and 14th
(and possibly the same individual on St Agnes on 17th), and on Lundy on 15th.
A Temminck’s Stint C. temminckii was at Dibden Bay on most days and two
at Sandbach (Cheshire) on 20th had been present for some time. Avocets Recur-
virostra avosetla were reported from eight places, an unusual inland record being of
one flying over Old Acres Valley, Cannock Chase (Staffordshire), on 6th. Single
Red-necked Phalaropes P. lobatus were seen at Wisbech sewage farm on 7th
and 1 1 th, the last of a remarkable series of five or six individuals during the autumn,
and there were single Grey Phalaropes P. fulicarius at Leamington Reservoir
(Staffordshire) on 7th, Minsmere from 10th to 12th, Cheddar Reservoir (Somerset)
from 13th to 1 6th, Cley from 13th to 31st, St Agnes on 14th, and Blithfield Reser-
voir (Staffordshire) and Church Wilne Reservoir (Derbyshire) on 21st.
Little Stints C. rninuta were reported from 36 localities: the highest counts
were in the first week, with 24 at Slimbridge (Gloucestershire) on 2nd and 23 at
37
Recent reports — October
Dibden Bay on 6th, after which numbers dropped steadily in most areas except
for a secondary peak in mid-month. There were far fewer Curlew Sandpipers
C. ferruginea, about 30 at 18 localities, and the maximum was only four at Chew
Valley Lake on 3rd. Among the winter visitors Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimtis
were particularly numerous: small parties were seen at many places and over 15 at
Sandwich Bay on 23rd was a record for the observatory, while at Leighton Moss
(Lancashire) numbers rose from six on 3rd and 25 on 6th to more than 40 on
17th, the highest numbers ever recorded there. An influx of Woodcocks Scolopax
rusticola was noted at Spurn on 31st when more than 20 arrived, and it is worth
noting that 46,000 Dunlin Calidris alpina in the Ribble on 14th was yet another
record for that estuary (see Brit. Birds, 66: 545).
I LARIDAE TO ALCIDAE
| Skua movements were evident at several places on the east coast. A northerly
I passage of well over 100 skuas at Seaton Sluice on 10th included at least 13
IPomarine Stercorarius pomarinus, and there were four of this species off Holy
Island on 14th and five off Collieston (Aberdeenshire) on 27th. Forty Great
Skuas S. skua flew south at Spurn on 21st, while at Shellncss (Kent) on 1 ith
two Great, 35 Arctic S. parasiticus and an unprecedented 70 Pomarine were
recorded. At least six skuas were found inland: immature Arctic at Belvide
Reservoir (Staffordshire) on 3rd and at Grafham Water (Huntingdonshire) on
14th; Great at Holme Pierrepont (Nottinghamshire) on 10th and at Chasewater
(Staffordshire) on 12th; a Pomarine over Sawston Hall woods (Cambridgeshire)
on 22nd; and even more surprising, a Long-tailed S. longicaudus found dead at
1 Wisbech sewage farm on 3rd, possibly a casualty of the late September gales (see
Brit. Birds, 66: 546).
Mediterranean Gulls Larus melanocephalus were reported from eight places.
( Glaucous L. hyberboreus from six, including two inland, and Iceland L. glaucoides
front Portstewart (Co. Londonderry) and Cape Clear Island on 19th, and Girdle
'Ness (Aberdeenshire) on 24th. Single Sabine’s Gulls L. sabini were seen at
W’cybourne (Norfolk) on 1st, Chew V alley Lake on 3rd and Cape Clear Island on
toth; on 20th a Little Gull L. minutus was present off St Mary’s (this species is
rare in Scilly) ; and next day a Bonaparte’s Gull L. Philadelphia was in Xewhaven
Harbour (Sussex). Black Terns Chlidonias niger remained very late, being present
in October in at least 13 counties in Britain and Ireland as far north as Aberdeen-
shire ; in Scilly, where the species is very rare, one was on St Agnes on 1 2 th and 1 3th.
There were three rare terns: a White-winged Black C. leucopterus at Cley from
1st to 10th, a Caspian Hydroprogne caspia at Chasewater on 14th, and a Gull-billed
Gelochelidon nilotica in Aberlady Bay (East Lothian) on 28th. Off Cape Clear
Island there was one Little Auk Plautus alle on 6th and two on 7th, and singles
appeared at Spurn on 18th and 23rd.
j DOVES TO WRYNECK
A Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur on Fair Isle from 25th to 28th was very late
for so far north. Its close relative from central and eastern Asia, the Rufous
Turtle Dove 5. orientalis, of which there have been three British records, was
identified at Lands End (Cornwall) on 5th but the possibility of an escape cannot
be entirely ruled out. From North America a Yellow-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus
americanus at Chewton Glen, near Highcliffe (Hampshire), on 20th was found dead
there two days later. Late Swifts Aptis apus included two at Minsmere on 1st.
one at Spurn on 10th, one flying north at Bardsev on 16th, and one at Lakenheath
(Suffolk) on 23rd. Southern vagrants were an Alpine Swift .1. melba at Portland
Bill (Dorset) on 7th and at Berry Head (Devon) on 9th and a Bee-eater Merops
apiaster at Seasalter (Kent) on 16th. In addition single Hoopoes Upupa epops were
reported in early October from Corby (Northamptonshire) and Mare de Carteret
38 Recent reports — October
(Guernsey), from the Annstead/Beadnell area of Northumberland on 13th and on
Fair Isle from 1 ith until 27th. About ten Wrynecks Jynx torquilla were seen at
eight places, the latest being one on Lundy on 25th.
PASSERINES WINTER VISITORS
A small arrival of Robins Erithacus rubecula on 4th included 250 at Spurn, 250-300
at Blakeney Point (Norfolk) and unusual numbers at several places in Tyneside.
Redwings Turdus iliacus, though coming in from 1st, showed two distinct peaks:
a massive movement at Fair Isle from 5th to 9th with a huge fall of 13,000 on 6th
(when large falls were also apparent all down the east coast of Scotland); and
further south a large arrival between 10th and 14th. The latter included 3,500 at
Spurn on 10th, 2,000 north-east over Bardsey and 700 on the Calf of Man on 1 ith
(when heavy influxes were also recorded in Kent and the London area), over
5.000 on St Agnes and large numbers moving north-east over Slimbridge on 12th,
2.000 at Cape Clear on 13th and 5,000 at Leighton Moss on 14th. Fieldfares
T. pilaris were a little later, arriving mainly between 16th and 22nd with falls of
1.000 on the Calf of Man on 1 6th, 1,000 at Leighton Moss on 17th, 1,900 at Spurn
on 1 8th, a large arrival in Tyneside between 18th and 22nd and a big influx in
Kent on 21st; a second arrival at the end of the month included 1,400 on the Calf
of Man on 28th. There was a large fall of 6,000 Blackbirds T. merula at Spurn on
22nd followed by another of 1,700 on 31st when large influxes were noted in
Tyneside, though on Fair Isle no large arrivals took place at all during October.
Records of Shore Larks Eremophila alpestris were received from 14 places.
Numbers were generally small, in most cases not reaching double figures, and
the maximum was 40 at Gibraltar Point (Lincolnshire) on 28th ; two unusual in-
land records were of single, birds at Attenborough (Nottinghamshire) on 21st
and Church Wilne Reservoir on 26th, in each case the second county record.
There were far more Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis, again mostly on the
east coast, the largest flock being 50 at Cley on 1 8th ; in the west a flock of 15
was at Southport (Lancashire) on 25th, three on Dunkery Beacon (Somerset)
on 28th, and singles on the Calf of Man on 1st, 4th and 24th; while unusually
far south on Guernsey there were two at Vazon on 14th, 18th and 28th and three
there on 29th, and one at Bordeaux Harbour on 25th. Lapland Buntings Calcarius
lapponicus were reported from 18 localities, six of them in western Britain, and
the largest flock consisted of 20 at Cley on 10th; passage was recorded on Lundy
on 15 days, while on Cape Clear Island there were singles on 3rd and 15th.
On the east coast birds were noted at Spurn on 14 days with a maximum of 18 on
23rd and 24th; inland one at Beddington sewage farm (Surrey) on 25th is only
the third London Area record, and a late report we have received is of one flying
over Big Moor (Derbyshire) with two Twites Acanthis flavirostris on 27th September.
The largest flock of Twites on the east and south coasts in October was 300 at
Minsmere from 10th to 15th; on Lundy there were two on 26th and one on 29th. A
large gathering of 350 Redpolls A. Jlammea was at Fawley (Hampshire) on 13th.
Rather small numbers of Bramblings Fringilla montifringilla arrived, with maxima
of up to 70 on Holy Island and up to 100 at Hauxley (Northumberland) between
4th and 7th, 100 at Freebirch (Derbyshire) on 25th and 40 on the Calf of Man on
27 th. There was evidence of more Great Grey Shrikes Lanitis excubitor than usual:
about 17 were present in Norfolk, over ten in Kent, seven in Tyneside, and at
least 40 more scattered throughout Britain. Waxwings Bombycilla garrulus were
extremely few — just one at Morston (Norfolk) on 26th and one on Fair Isle on
31st. Two Black-bellied Dippers Cinclus c. cinclus, a scarce winter visitor, were
seen at Keswick Mill (Norfolk) on 28th and singles subsequently.
Reports of abnormal numbers of Long-tailed Tits Aegithalos caudatus were
received from many areas. Among the more interesting observations were a
maximum of 1 5 on 1 5th and 1 6th on the Calf of Man, where there is only one
39
Recent reports — October
previous record as long ago as 1957; 24 in Regent’s Park (London) on 22nd,
possibly the largest number ever recorded there; and 50 at Hauxley from 20th
to 24th. Although there was no major irruption ol Bearded Tits Panurus biarmicus,
small numbers were seen in south and south-west England, several moved west
in Norfolk, two were on Alderney on 29th, and at Spurn there were two migrants
on 14th, five on 20th, three on 26th, two on 27th and five on 29th (cf. Brit. Birds,
66: 13 1). Between 4th and 31st 20 migrants were trapped on the River Exe, and
one controlled there had been ringed at Radipole Lake (Dorset) in the summer.
PASSERINE VAGRANTS
From the Nearctic there was an Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus trapped on the
Out Skerries (Shetland) on 7th and 8th which, if accepted, will be the first live
record of this wood warbler for Britain and Ireland (see Brit. Birds, 63: 289), and
a Myrtle Warbler Dendroica coronata on Tresco on 16th and 17th which would
be the fourth, the previous three also having been in south-west England.
Palearctic vagrants were mainly of a northern or eastern origin. The only
truly southern species were Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti, recorded at three places —
singles at Litlington (Sussex) on 4th, on Bardsey from 26th to 30th, and at Mins-
mere on 4th and 7th, with two on 30th — and an immature Woodchat Shrike
Lanius senator at Portland Bill from 6th to 12th. A Tawny Pipit Antlius campeslris
at Steart (Somerset) on 4th, up to four (including three trapped) at Bcachy Head
during 7th- 17th, and up to five in Scilly from 13th, and a Serin Serinus serinus on
St Agnes on 14th, were probably of southern origin, while a Short-toed Lark
Calandrella cinerea on the Out Skerries from 4th to 10th and up to three on Fair
Isle during 27th September to 13th October were more likely to have all been of the
eastern races. Two Penduline Tits Remiz pendulums at Wells (Norfolk) on 27th
1 would constitute only the second British occurrence (and the first since October
1966), if accepted. A Stonechat Saxicola torquata showing the characteristics of the
' Siberian race maura arrived on Fair Isle on 5th, and a Radde’s Warbler Phyllo-
scopus schwarzi turned up on St Agnes on 13th. Yellow-browed Warblers P.
inornatus were reported at 15 localities on the east and west coasts and Cape Clear,
about 33 birds being involved; in Scilly there were at least eleven from 9th onwards.
A Greenish Warbler P. trochiloides was trapped on North Ronaldsay (Orkney) on
1 6th. There were far fewer Richard’s Pipits Anthus novaeseelandiae than in recent
years: one to two throughout the month on Fair Isle, singles at Breydon (Norfolk)
and Bardsey on 7th, Minsmere from 9th to 12th, St Agnes on 12th, 15th and 18th.
Spurn on 21st with two on 27th, Lundy from 23rd to 27th with at least three on
26th, Fenstanton (Huntingdonshire) on 28th, and Lavernock Point (Glamorgan;
on an unspecified date during the month. Single Red-throated Pipits .1. cervinus
were seen at Beachy Head on 6th, on St Mary’s on 1 ith, on St Agnes on 14th and
on Lundy from 31st to 2nd November. An immature female Rose-coloured
Starling Sturnus roseus was trapped at Wainfleet, Skegness (Lincolnshire) on 18th.
Scarlet Rosefinches Carpodacus erythrinus were present at Bamburgh on 6th.
Tresco on 10th and Spurn on I2th-i3th and 21st. Lastly there were sightings of
Little Buntings Emberiza pusilla, all singles, on St Mary’s from 7U1 for a few days,
on St Agnes on 12th and 27th. on Cape Clear Island from nth to 17th and on
Fair Isle on 15th.
PASSERINES PASSAGE MIGRANTS
A Woodlark Lullula arborea appeared on Fair Isle on 6th, up to three on St
Agnes on 13th and 14th, and singles on Lundy on 14th and 24th. One to two
Bluethroats Luscinia svecica were present daily on Fair Isle until 25th, and else-
where there were singles at Spurn on 1st, Tynemouth on 6th, Portland on 7th,
Holy Island on 13th and 14th and Cape Clear Island from 15th to 19th. At the
last place there was also an Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola on 14th and
40
Recent reports— October
15th, a Melodious Warbler Hippolais polyglotta on 9th and ioth, and single
Icterines H. icterina on six dates during I3th-23rd, besides an unidentified Hippolais
on 14th. Another Icterine appeared at Alnmouth (Northumberland) on 13th.
Barred Warblers Sylvia nisoria were reported at Spurn on 2nd, Hauxley on 6th
and 7th, Holy Island and two at Foxton (Northumberland) on 13th, St Agnes on
13th, 15th and 17th, and the Calf of Man on 28th. Single Lesser Whitethroats
S. curruca appeared unusually far west on Cape Clear Island on 6th, 7th, 1 ith and
13th, and one of the eastern race blythi was on St Mary’s and St Agnes from 13th.
Up to six ‘northern’ Chiff chaffs Phylloscopus colly bita were present in Scilly from
1 2th, and passage was noted on Fair Isle all month with a peak of eleven on 16th.
Nine or more Firecrests Regulus ignicapillus wei-e noted on Lundy during 10th-
31st, while as many as 14 were counted at Lihou (Guernsey) on 27th. Some 40
Red-breasted Flycatchers Ficedula parva were reported from 2 1 places, 1 6 of them
in eastern Britain where the majority appeared between 4th and 7th; twelve or
more were recorded in Scilly from 9th, and one on Cape Clear Island on 13th and
15th. The only Ortolan Buntings Emberiza hortulana reported were singles on Fair
Isle on 1st and at Sevenoaks (Kent) on an unspecified date.
Of the commoner migrants, unprecedented numbers of Ring Ouzels Turdus
torquatus were recorded in the west, including about 200 on St Agnes on 1 2th and
52 on Cape Clear Island on 14th (the previous highest autumn maximum there
being seven) ; 40 were at Beachy Head on 1 4th. Up to twelve Black Redstarts
Phoenicurus ochruros were on St Agnes from 12th. Record numbers of Blackcaps
Sylvia atricapilla were ringed at Spurn during the month — 200 altogether, a normal
October total being about 70; the maximum count was 33 on 15th. Very high
numbers of Goldcrests R. regulus occurred also: an influx in the first week was
followed by further falls in the middle of the month and the highest counts were
500 or more on Bardsey on 8th and 550 at Spurn on 16th. During September and
October a record 686 were ringed on the Calf of Man and 850 on Bardsey. Miscel-
laneous migrants included a Nuthatch Sitta europaea on St Agnes on 12th and a
Hawfinch Coccothraustes coccothraustes at Spurn on 25th.
Best recent work by British bird-photographers The selection of photo-
graphs for this annual feature (see Brit. Birds, 66: i57_I59> plates 25-32) is to be
made shortly, and all prints should reach us by 29th March. Each print should
be marked with the month, year and county (or country, if abroad) in which the
photograph was taken.
FRANK-NIPOLE
BINOCULARS
/e stock all the better makes of binoculars, and we allow liberal
scounts on them, but the ornithologist who insists on a good
jality instrument at a reasonable cost will do well to consider
ly of the binoculars in the Frank-Nipole range. We have suffi-
ent confidence in these fine instruments to guarantee them for
period of seven years, and the following pointers may be useful.
ie 8 X 30 model (priced at £14 50), which is approved by the
ame Conservancy and also recommended by the Royal Society
<r the Protection of Birds, is both compact and light, and there-
ire particularly suitable for the younger ornithologist and indeed
ir anyone to whom weight is of primary importance. Even
nailer and lighter are two new Frank-Nipole models — the 10 X
■) (£1940) and the 12 X 50 (£22-70); considering their high
awer and light transmission, they are remarkably light, compact
id easy to handle. The dedicated ornithologist, however, unde-
irred by a little extra size and weight, is inclined to remain loyal
> our standard 10 X 50 model (£19 00). All are supplied com-
pete with case and straps.
here are now also three really large models available — the
X 63 (£36 30), the 12 X 65 (£38 50) and the 20 X 70
£42 90); case, if required, £7 extra. The 9 X 63 and 12 X 65
an be hand-held but the 20 X 70 requires to be tripod-supported;
suitable tripod can be supplied for about £15 00.
n invitation is extended to all readers of British Birds to apply
>r our free catalogue and a complimentary copy of 'Tell me, Mr
rank', a booklet which tells you everything you want to know
oout binoculars.
FREE TEST
We extend an invitation to
readers of 'British Birds' to
test any of the Frank-Nipole
binoculars under field condi-
tions without any obligation
whatsoever.
CORRECT ALIGNMENT
A binocular NOT in correct
alignment can cause head-
aches and eyestrain. It is safer
to purchase from a specialist
— we test and guarantee every
binocular we sell.
Ne accept your old binoculars in part exchange and extend credit facilities
CHARLES FRANK LTD
Binocular specialists and telescope makers for three generations
Tel
44 INGRAM STREET, GLASGOW G1 1EJ 041-221 6666
Volume 67 Number 1 January 1974
1 Field identification of small species in the genus Calidris
D. I. At. Wallace Plates 2-3
17 Mediterranean Gulls at Blackpill, Glamorgan
- R. A. Hume and P. G. Lansdown
NOTES
25 Gannet nest with two chicks Peter Rowe Plate i
25 Piracy by Lanner J . F. Reynolds Plate 4a
26 Observations on Wren rearing young Cuckoo N. A. J. Wilde
Plate 4b
27 Domed nest of Chaffinch Julian C. Rolls
LETTERS
28 Scope of ‘British Birds’ and seasonal analyses of records
B. D. Harding , Michael Speckmann, John Lord , Derek Barber,
Alastair Anderson, and George Yeates
32 News and comment Robert Hudson
34 Recent reports — October D. A. Christie
Robert R. Greenhalf drew the Bewick’s Swans on page 40
Printed by Henry Burt & Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8na
Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 31T
Volume 67 Number 2 February 1974
EFFECTS OF AGRICULTURAL CHANGE
ON BIRDS
PALEARCTIC BIRDS IN EAST AFRICA
Editorial Address io Merton Road, Bedford MK40 3AF ( telephone : 0234 67558)
Editors Stanley Cramp, P. F. Bonham, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie
and D. I. M. Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosking
Publishing Manager David M. Burn
News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove,
Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR
Rarities Committee F. R. Smith, 1 17 Hill Barton Road, Exeter, Devon exi 3PP
© The authors and Macmillan Journals Ltd
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lined immediately after the first mention of the English name, though it is some-
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Volume 67 Number 2 February 1974
Some effects of agricultural change
on the English avifauna
R. K. Murton and N. J. Westwood
INTRODUCTION
Drastic and rapid changes occurring in the agricultural habitat have
led to widespread expressions of concern for the welfare of any
dependent flora and fauna. For instance, current projections
suggest a two-fold increase in demand for home-produced cereals
by the turn of the century (Strickland, in press) ; this could be met
by doubling either the cereal acreage or the yields, or, most likely,
by a compromise between these two alternatives. There is a need to
define and quantify the consequences of farming practice on the
component flora and fauna and to predict future trends, especially
since a large proportion of the total area of Britain is involved (over
80% of England and Wales is devoted to agriculture). Birds have
been well studied compared with other animals and with plants,
and are useful indicators of biological change. We have undertaken
various investigations of farmland birds since the mid-ig5o’s,
particularly in areas of intensive arable farming on the Cambridge-
shire/Suffolk border, and our records, although they refer mostly
to common species often regarded by farmers as pests, serve to
illustrate factors which are especially pertinent to the farmland
avifauna in general. In interpolating many previously unpublished
results in this review, we have aimed to illustrate and focus attention
on some topics worthy of future research.
Two major ways in which agricultural expansion can affect
wildlife ought to be distinguished: first, farming may engulf and
destroy unique habitats such as forest and marsh; second, agricul-
tural practice may alter the niches available for birds within the
41
42
Effects of agricultural change on birds
agricultural system itself. The first situation is self-evident and is
not dealt with in detail in this paper. It is clearly imperative that
both local societies and national conservation bodies should identify
threatened habitats and liaise with the appropriate landowners and
authorities to ensure a sensible allocation of priorities for land use in
Britain. There is a research need to define the optimum size, con-
figuration and distribution of a particular habitat to guarantee the
survival of a given species. Sites of prime importance are already
documented in the Reserve Review of the Nature Conservancy,
while the British Trust for Ornithology’s planned ‘Register of
Ornithological Sites’ ( BTO News, nos. 58 and 59, 1973) will identify
and describe those of particular ornithological interest. The BTO’s
Common Birds Census scheme (Williamson and Homes 1964) has
been especially useful not only in monitoring large-scale fluctua-
tions in bird populations from year to year, but also in developing
a standard technique for censusing breeding birds on farmland and
quantifying the effects of changes in land use or management.
Mention should be made of the special cases of agricultural practice
which cause widespread environmental deterioration, including
pollution of waterways or eutrophication resulting from the exces-
sive use of nitrogenous fertilisers, and accumulations of certain
persistent toxic insecticides (reviewed by Prestt 1972, Prestt and
Ratcliffe 1972). The rest of this paper is concerned with the farm-
land ecosystem itself, particularly lowland arable farmland, and
with changes that are occurring within the system.
FACTORS AFFECTING INDIVIDUAL SPECIES
The birds which typically occur on farmland have been listed in
papers dealing with the Common Birds Census and by various
individual workers (Williamson 1967, Murton 1971, Batten 1971
et seq.). There are two major components, one derived from deci-
duous woodland, which manages with scattered trees and hedges,
and the second originating from open heath or moor. Because at
least two habitats occur on the farm, the potential number of species
is greater than in either woodland or open country alone, and the
biomass is much higher (Murton 1971). The species which are
particularly well adapted may at times assume pest status, but the )
majority are poorly suited to farm conditions.
Farmland as a suboptimal habitat
In deciduous woodland at Oxford (Wytham Estate), nests of Great |
Tits* were more spaced than would be expected with a random
distribution, and interactions between pairs produced a local |
*Scientific names of birds not given in the text are listed in appendix 2 on page 69. f
43
Effects of agricultural change on birds
density-limiting effect (Krebs 1971). Removal of territorial pairs
enabled new birds to take their place and these proved to be
argely first-year individuals coming from territories in the hedge-
ows surrounding the woods. The vacated hedgerow territories
were not refilled and thus were ‘suboptimal’ in terms of the tit’s
eproductive success. Factors affecting the survival of the birds in
1 he ‘optimal’ woodland habitat are important for an understanding
>f population regulation in this species (Krebs 1970), whereas
fluctuations occurring in the suboptimal habitat are only of secon-
dary significance. Thus a decline of the Great Tit, or any other
voodland species, in farmland would not presuppose a danger to the
welfare of the species in the country as a whole. Precisely the same
pplies to the Wren. In years of low population density this species
las a relatively invariable-sized territory in woodland or in vegeta-
ion along streams and rivers, but when population density is high
: spreads into neighbouring farmland, gardens and orchards and
ccupies linear territories in hedgerows and other less favoured
ites (Williamson 1969).
Most Woodpigeons in Britain today live in association with arable
inning, and probably more than three-quarters of the total popula-
on is dependent on cereals and clover leaves; that is, less than a
uarter of the birds rely on the natural habitat of deciduous wood-
ind, for which their arboreal feeding habits are adapted. Adults
- ssume breeding capacity in March, though the gonads of first-year
irds do not become viable until July (Lofts et al. 1967). Thus the
rst eggs and young can be produced in April and May when the
•ee buds of elm Ulmus procera, beech Fagus sylvatica and hawthorn
rataegus monogyna are opening and are most nutritive, being heavily
iden with the precursor materials for flower and leaf production,
dults have first choice of the best territories in woodland and
delude juveniles, as was shown by catching breeding birds on their
ests, using baits treated with alpha-chloralose, at two adjacent
oodland breeding localities on the Six Mile Bottom estate, Cam-
ridgeshire. At one site (‘Study Belt’) the pigeons were allowed to
:cover and were released after being aged, but at the other (‘Long
“It’) they were killed (fig. 1). It was found that birds nesting away
om the woodland belts in corn crops, or at the base of hedges in
nk vegetation, or in isolated bushes, were mostly in their first year
id possessed brown-tipped juvenile feathers on the front edge of
e wing. Removal of territory-holding and nesting pigeons from
Dng Belt led to their replacement by young birds, which presum-
>ly would otherwise have nested in less favoured sites away from
e woodland. In fact, during 1964-68 juveniles made up 28% of
4 pigeons at Long Belt, compared with only 7% of 157 caught at
udy Belt (y* = 22.4, P < 0.001).
44
Effects of agricultural change on birds
Fig. i. Changes in numbers of breeding Woodpigeons per acre* from 1964 to 1969
at two adjacent nesting sites in Cambridgeshire: (a) Long Belt (1.94 acres) where
birds were shot on their nests or captured and killed using stupefying baits; (b)
Study Belt (3.69 acres), which served as a control, where pigeons were captured
for ageing but then released unharmed. Histograms show numbers of adults
(solid) and juveniles (open) per acre killed at Long Belt
The eggs laid by Woodpigeons are heaviest in spring and there-
after their weight declines to a minimum in August and September,
when abundant food supplies in the form of ripe cereals are available
(Murton et al. 1974). Egg-weight is related to the adult’s ability to
compensate a chick for a low weight at hatching by providing it
with ‘milk’ and other foods. Thus if the adults find it easy to nourish
a newly hatched chick there is no advantage in producing a heavy
egg, since to do so would require energy which the female must
largely supply. The seasonal decline in egg-weight is adaptive and
is determined by physiological mechanisms. But these mechanisms 1
could become a disadvantage if the Woodpigeon attempted to
*Since many of the studies cited in this review used English units of length and
area, it has not been practicable to express measurements in the metric units 1
now normally used in this journal. Conversion may be made using the following !
factors: 1 acre = 0.4047 hectares, 1 square foot = 0.0929 square metres, 1 yard 1 1
= 0.9144 metres, 1 square yard = 0.8361 square metres, 1 mile = 1.609 kilo-
metres
Effects of agricultural change on birds
45
Table I. Average egg-weights of Lapwings nesting in arable farmland,
fenland pasture and heath
Weights (± standard deviation) are in grams; the number of eggs is shown in
brackets. The 1973 data for arable farmland refer to sites in west Suffolk
Month of
laying
Arable farmland,
Carlton, Cambs.
Fenland pasture,
Ouse Washes
Heath,
Breckland
April 1971
27.8 ± 2.0 (21)
25.2 ± 2.0 (24)
25-5 ± *-9 (28)
April 1972
26.3 ± 1.3 (24)
27.1 ± 1.6 (30)
25.7 ± i-6 (22)
April 1973
28.8 ± 2.2 (20)
24-9 ± i-7 («6)
May 1971
28.3 ± 0.9 (8)
26.4 ± 0.4 (8)
25-2 ± 0.5 (4)
colonise a habitat where food availability declined instead of
increased during the breeding season. This leads us to suspect that
there are countless undiscovered physiological adaptations which
help or hinder a species in adapting to a man-altered environment.
Another aspect of egg-weight is illustrated by the Lapwing.
Females nesting on arable farmland or fenland pastures produce
' heavier eggs than those inhabiting more ‘natural’ sites such as are
bund in the East Anglian Breckland (table 1). Data are
accumulating which show that in March and early April females
obtain good supplies of earthworms (Oligochaeta : Lumbricidae)
and other soil invertebrates on farmland and so are better off than
I Lapwings in Breckland, which rely on beetles (Coleoptera) and
other ground invertebrates, supplies of which are then sparse and
variable. But newly hatched Lapwings are unable to eat earthworms,
and in any case these become difficult to collect in May as the ground
begins to dry. Supplies of beetles and other surface-dwelling inverte-
brates are also very scanty on cultivated farmland in May and June
:ompared with those on natural grassland, including Breckland, so
..apwings in the more natural sites can now compensate for the
nitial advantages gained by individuals which had resorted to
armland. Unlike Lapwings, Oystercatchers Haematopus ostralegus
eed their young and so are better able to cope with earthworms
ifter the chicks hatch. This may partly explain the success of the
Oystercatcher on farmland in Scotland, lor it is known that indivi-
luals able to obtain earthworms rear their young more successfully
han those which feed in the littoral zone (Heppleston 1972). The
tamper climate of Scotland may be a contributory factor in that the
'nset of summer droughts is delayed compared with that in East
vnglia.
'hanges in farming affecting bird populations
here has been a marked increase in mechanisation, a concentration
f stock-rearing under cover and, of course, an increasing depen-
ence on chemicals. Modern fashions in arable farming now involve
46 Effects of agricultural change on birds
repeated cereal cropping, risks of reduced yield being circum-
vented, at least so far, by improved varieties, artificial fertilisers and
pesticides; increases in cereal production have been associated with
a decrease in grass and forage crops, including undersown leys. It is
of some significance that chemical control of weeds in cereals is
much more difficult if the crop is undersown with clover. In southern
East Anglia in 1967, 104 cereal fields were surveyed: in only eleven
was no herbicide used, while in 49 fields mixtures of various kinds
were employed, mcpa (4-chloro-2-methylphenoxyacetic acid),
mecoprop (2-4-chloro-2-methylphenoxy propionic acid), dicamba
(3, 6-dichloro-2-methoxybenzoic acid) and 2,4-D (2, 4-dichloro-
phenoxyacetic acid) being the most important (Elliott and Cox
1968). Application of herbicides can increase the net farm income
by up to 20%, so their use on a wide scale is not surprising (Evans
1966), but even the introduction of the synthetic plant growth
regulators mcpa and 2,4-D in 1946 and others since has not elimi-
nated weeds in general. Instead susceptible species such as charlock
Sinapis arvensis, corn poppy Papaver rhoeas and field buttercup
Ranunculus arvensis have declined in numbers, whereas many of the
more tolerant species have increased, including common chickweed
Stellaria media, knotgrass Polygonum aviculare, black bindweed P.
convolvulus, redleg P. persicaria, some speedwells Veronica spp and
fat-hen Chenopodium album (Roberts 1962, Evans 1966, Fryer and
Chancellor 1970). There have also been increases in the use of
nitrogenous fertilisers and a changed cropping pattern, both factors
affecting the weed seed composition. For example, during regimes
of continuous vegetable growing following normal agricultural
cropping, Roberts (1962, 1968) found that the viable weed seed
population declined exponentially at a rate of 45% per annum for
the first four years, and this was followed by an increase and more
fluctuation during the next five years as the species composition
became adapted; annual meadow-grass Poa annua, groundsel
Senecio vulgaris, common chickweed and shepherd’s purse Capsella
bursa-pastoris increased to account for about 70% of all the viable
seed present, while fumitory Fumaria officinalis was little affected.
In the future it has been suggested that herbicide-sensitive species
will continue to decline and be replaced by resistant and better-
adapted species, particularly those with short life-cycles and pro-
longed seed dormancy (Fryer and Chancellor 1970)- However,
data from Thurston ( 1 969) covering a programme of eight years of
spraying show no evidence of selection for late-germination strains,
and a tendency for the dormancy of weed seeds to be decreased.
It is likely that efforts at herbicide economy will follow the realisa-
tion that crop yields may not be affected if spraying is withheld for
at least one season (Evans 1966). Indeed, it is rare today for weeds
Effects of agricultural change on birds 47
in cereal crops to reduce yields, and many farmers spray because a
weedy crop is more costly to harvest than a clean one.
Two species, the Grey Partridge and Woodpigeon, well illustrate
different consequences of a decline in the ley and forage acreage, a
trend which is now being reversed.
Grey Partridge
The well-documented decline of this species has been shown to
result from a decrease in recruitment of young birds, variations in
chick mortality being the key factor causing variations in the size of
the adult population (Blank et al. 1967, Ash 1970). The food of
chicks is the most important factor governing their survival rate, and
the immediate cause for the decline in recruitment has been a
shortage of arthropod food which has led to an increased dependence
on cereal aphids (Southwood and Cross 1969). A single application
of mcpa in April reduces the arthropod biomass of the standing
crop (soil fauna excluded) to one-third the level in unsprayed
controls (Southwood and Cross 1969). Thus aphids have become
the most important food for partridge chicks in cereal fields, but, to
a large extent, these migrate into the crop after the main hatch of
Grey Partridge chicks, though at about the time that Red-legged
Partridge chicks are born (Potts 1970). Thus, by virtue of having a
slightly later breeding season, the Red-leg can make much greater
use of cereal aphids and in consequence has increased (Middleton
and Huband 1966). It is possible, as Potts has suggested, that
aphids are now more numerous in consequence of chemical sprays,
for 2,4-D selectively removes the ladybird larvae (Coleoptera:
■ Coccinellidae) which predate aphids (Adams i960). But Potts has
also shown that a greater dependence on cereal aphids has made the
Grey Partridge more prone to cold wet springs, for these delay the
aphid migration. In such years the birds become extremely depen-
dent on the cereal-feeding sawfly larvae (Hvmenoptera : Symphyta :
Tenthredinidae) and the survival of Grey Partridge chicks, but not
Red-leg chicks, is strongly correlated with the abundance of such
sawfly larvae as Dolerus haematodes. These overwinter in the soil as
pupae and they do so much more successfully if leys are left undis-
turbed following a cereal crop than if the stubbles are burnt or the
fields immediately harrowed, cultivated, planted and rolled. The
essential cause of the Grey Partridge’s decline has been a loss of
chick food consequent on the disappearance of leys and forage and
an increased dependence on cereal insects, themselves subject to
chemical treatment.
Woodpigeon
In the mid- 1 960’s in East Anglia the old four-course Norfolk system
48 Effects of agricultural change on birds
of crop rotation, which involved undersowing half the cereal acreage
and included a root crop such as swedes, sugar-beet or turnips as
part of the rotation, gave way to routines of continuous cereals with-
out leys. In the Carlton study area (which totals 2,647 acres) there
were, in January i960, 572 acres of long-term leys and pastures
plus 108 acres of stubble undersown with clover. The situation
remained virtually unchanged until early 1 965 when there were 630
acres allocated to leys and pasture and a further 1 73 acres of under-
sown stubble. But in the summer of 1965, 159 acres of pasture and
established ley, equivalent to 25% of the January 1965 acreage,
were ploughed and made ready for cereals. By 1966 the acreage of
winter forage available to pigeons was reduced to 475 acres and
maintained at this level until 1970 (473 acres); that is, the acreage
of winter feed from 1966 to 1970 was 75% of the level between 1959
and 1965. For a while during the mid- 1960’s, increases in the cereal
acreage provided an improved food supply during and following the
breeding season. But the modern practice of stubble burning and
ploughing immediately after harvest has caused a sharp decline in
the autumn cereal food supply and an increased dependence on the
diminished winter supply of clover leaves. Not surprisingly, there has
Fig. 2. Changes in Woodpigeon populations at three sites, shown as maximum num-
ber of occupied nests per acre: (a) Carlton, Cambridgeshire, 1959-72 (4.7 acres
of deciduous woodland surveyed); (b) Buckminster, Lincolnshire, 1960-68 (40
acres of deciduous woodland surveyed) ; (c) Buckminster (6 acres of scrub and
bushes adjacent to b). Histograms give winter Clover Index (mean number of
clover leaves per square foot multiplied by percentage acreage supporting clover)
at Carlton from 1959/60 to 1971/72
49
Effects of agricultural change on birds
e 2. Summary of counts of nesting Woodpigeons in study areas at Buckminster,
Lincolnshire, and Carlton, Cambridgeshire, during 1960-68 (see fig. 2)
lations: lines 1 and 4 (r, = 0.595, P = 0.10 to 0.05); lines 2 and 3 (r7 = 0.815, P = 0.01
to 0.001)
tal nests at Buckminster
iportion of Buckminster
-ds in scrub
jportion of juveniles
ceding at Carlton
tal breeding population
Carlton
i960
1961
1962
1963
1964
*965
1966
1967
1968
553
543
616
259
498
3H
441
497
264
« 7%
18%
19%
12%
21%
27%
45%
22%
30%
21%
25%
27%
8%
45%
3i%
54%
26%
3<>%
64
5i
64
4i
49
4i
77
80
44
been a marked drop in the Woodpigeon population to probably
about one-quarter of the level obtaining up to and during the i95o’s.
Fig. 2 illustrates these changes by reference to detailed records
collected at Carlton.
Fig. 2 also demonstrates that changes in pigeon numbers at a
40-acre mature deciduous wood at Buckminster, Lincolnshire,
paralleled closely those occurring at Carlton. Adjacent to this wood
were six acres of scrub (Bush Field), which, though supporting a
higher nesting density of pigeons (a mean of 29.6 occupied nests per
acre over nine years compared with 8.6 per acre in the main wood),
probably provided a less preferred habitat, for the wood was
occupied first. Following the hard winter of 1962-63, when pigeon
numbers were drastically reduced and first-year birds suffered
particularly badly, the breeding population in the wood fell by 50%
but that in the scrub by 70% (fig. 2). Indeed, the percentage of the
total Buckminster population which utilised the scrub area was
strongly correlated, at least during 1960-68, with the percentage of
juveniles in the breeding population at Carlton, which was probably
also indicative of the age ratio of the Buckminster population
(table 2). This example again emphasises that territoriality can
limit density in the preferred habitat so that surplus birds must
attempt to nest elsewhere.
Soil invertebrates and the Rook
Herbicides appear to have no immediate or long-term effect on the
soil fauna (Fletcher 1966) : mcpa applied for ten out of 13 years in an
area of intensive cereal cropping did not affect numbers of arthro-
pods (Davis 1965), and the same applies in the case of the newer
chemicals such as paraquat. In contrast, chlorinated hydrocarbon
insecticides, such as aldrin, dieldrin and ddt, do have a more pro-
found short-term effect in reducing the variety of species of micro-
arthropods, though actual numbers often increase due to reductions
50
Effects of agricultural change on birds
of predatory species; the detrimental effects usually last for only a
season, numbers and species diversity subsequently recovering
(Edwards and Lofty 1969). In fact, cultivation generally causes a
greater and longer-lasting decrement in the soil micro-arthropods
and dependent predators, though improved drainage, irrigation and
treatment with fertilisers may partly compensate. Worms (Oli-
gochaeta) and slugs (Gastropoda: Pulmonata) accumulate more
ddt than ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) and retain the
residues far longer: the common earthworm Lumbricus terrestris has
been shown to accumulate the biggest residues (25 ppm) because
it pulls down leaves into its burrow immediately after spraying
(Davis and French 1969). Obviously, the more toxic insecticides
have had short-term harmful effects on wildlife and longer-term
effects on certain predatory species. But many people continue to
suggest in general terms that seed dressings may be responsible for a
decline of other farmland birds. For example, Dobbs (1969) ex-
plained the failure of the Rook in Nottinghamshire to recover from
a sharp decline in the early 1960’s in terms of mortality in the
1962/63 winter, more efficient shooting at the rookeries, and seed
dressing with dieldrin. Earlier Dobbs (1964) presented data to
suggest (statistically confirmed by Murton 1971) that Rook num-
bers in Nottinghamshire increased as the cereal acreage increased,
but he argued that any causative relationship probably depended on
tillage increasing the availability of soil invertebrates rather than
that of cereal seed. In contrast, in the adjacent county of Derbyshire
Rook numbers have fallen most in areas where cereal farming has
intensified (Lomas 1968).
The maximum total population of Rooks at Carlton in March
and April each year has exhibited no consistent trends during
1964-71 (see fig. 3, which is based on a count of all Rooks in the
study area and not the breeding population only, in contrast to the
usual counts of occupied nests). Total numbers, and the proportion
of first-year birds in the population, reach a minimum in June and
Fig. 3. Maximum number
of Rooks (breeding and
non-breeding) in 2,647-
acre study area at Carlton,
Cambridgeshire, in either
March or April, 1964-71
64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
51
Effects of agricultural change on birds
July, when it may be suspected that food supplies are most difficult
to obtain for the Rook ; summer droughts force earthworms and other
soil animals to move deeper into the soil and an alternative food
supply of cereal grain does not become available until early August.
Patterson et al. (1971) found that marked birds in their Aberdeen-
shire study area were most dispersed in summer. Ringing recoveries
also show that the proportion of Rooks recovered at a distance from
the home rookery increases through the first winter and remains
high until the second winter, after which survivors return to their
birthplace (Holyoak 1971).
Some salient data on Rook numbers and food availability are set
out in appendix 1 on page 68, justification for regarding cereal
seeds and earthworms as key food items having been given else-
where (Murton 1971, Holyoak 1972). The maximum population of
Rooks recorded in March/April (column 1, also fig. 3) has not
been correlated with the minimum biomass (column 5a) or number
(5b) of earthworms sampled in these months. Nor has it been related
to earthworm biomass or numbers in the preceding March/April
nor to the amount of grain on the stubbles in the preceding Novem-
ber (column 7 — the best indication of the autumn availability of
cereal grain). But, as fig. 4 demonstrates, it has depended strongly
on the minimum earthworm biomass recorded in the previous
June/July (column 6a in appendix 1); the correlation was only
slightly less when earthworm numbers (column 6b) instead of bio-
mass were considered.
'ig. 4. Maximum number of Rooks in
Carlton study area in March/April,
965-71, plotted against minimum bio-
nass of earthworms recorded in the pre-
ious June/July. An index of earthworm
vailability was obtained by watering
ilute formalin solution on to square-
ard sample plots and weighing the
earthworms emerging
Fig. 5. Maximum number of Rooks
in Carlton study area in March/
April, 1964-70, plotted against
percentage of black-faced birds
(juveniles) present in the population
at the same time
52
Effects of agricultural change on birds
Total Rook numbers in spring were also just correlated with the
percentage of black-faced first-year birds in the population (fig. 5) ;
though with the data available it did not seem that the spring
juvenile ratio was related to the minimum worm count in June/
July. More data might establish a relationship but, on the other
hand, if young birds tend to move out of the area in summer this
need not follow. However, the maximum proportion of black-faced
birds actually remaining at Carlton during June/July was probably
correlated with the minimum availability of earthworms at this
time (appendix 1). According to Holyoak, most first-year mortality
occurs in June, July and August, most second-year from January
until April (the annual mortality of first- and second-year Rooks
is around 59% and 51 %, respectively), while adults suffer maximum
mortality in April (adult mortality being about 25% per year).
Thus winter frosts do not appear to be important ( cj . Lockie 1956),
and the clue to the success or failure of the Rook is the availability
of soil invertebrates during the critical period of summer droughts.
Earthworm stocks increase in late autumn and winter before
Rooks are able to supplement their numbers through breeding to
take advantage of the improvement. Accordingly, immigrant Rooks
from central Europe are able to winter alongside residents. This
winter supply of earthworms also supports other migrants to low-
land farmland, including Lapwings, Golden Plovers and various
thrushes (Turdidae). In parts of Scotland this food supply is also
exploited by Oystercatchers : for example, in midwinter on the tidal
estuary of the River Ythan, Aberdeenshire, these birds have insuffi-
cient time to obtain food but are able to compensate by resorting to
grass fields at high tide (Heppleston 1971).
Adjustment of breeding season and reproductive success
The temporal ordering of avian breeding seasons in the north tem-
perate zone typically involves reproduction in the spring; this
season broadly corresponds with maximum food availability in the
form of soil invertebrates, prior to soil drying in summer, or of
defoliating caterpillars. Weed seeds are produced for a greater
segment of the year but, even so, those birds which rely entirely on
a seed diet do best in competition with conspecifics if they rear their
young as soon as possible; others need in any case to supplement a
seed diet with invertebrates when breeding. The trend from pastoral
to intensive modern arable regimes has tended to shift the peak of
general food availability from spring to late summer. Under
intensive cereal cropping, land is ploughed as soon as possible after
harvest so that it can be planted again with winter wheat or spring
barley from October until March or April. During the early stages
of cereal growth, herbicides and insecticides are used to ensure that
53
Effects of agricultural change on birds
no weed flora and associate invertebrate fauna can develop. Hence,
growing cereals are not overwintering habitats for invertebrates and
it is not until early summer that they secondarily become host to a
fauna which immigrates from other crops.
Because of its potentially long breeding season, the Woodpigeon
usefully illustrates the consequences on reproductive performance of
a temporal shift in food availability. Cramp (1972) has compared
the breeding season of Woodpigeons nesting in London with that of
birds in our Cambridgeshire study sites to illustrate how breeding
activity in London is concentrated in the months of April-July,
while in Cambridgeshire over 75% of egg production occurs during
July-September. A similar but less well-defined trend can be seen
by comparing the egg-laying season of Woodpigeons in predomi-
nantly pastoral counties of western Britain with that in the arable
east using BTO nest record card data (fig. 6). Unfortunately the
BTO WEST 1951-69
9030
20
T
T
0‘N
BTO EAST 1951-69
.2056
Fig. 6. Percentages of Woodpigeon nests containing eggs or young recorded per
month in samples from eastern and western Britain; sample sizes given at top
left. Seasonal patterns of data collected under the BTO Nest Record Scheme (top
two histograms) probably suffer from observer bias, but the same bias should
apply to both samples
Counties contributing to the eastern sample (mostly arable) were Midlothian, Northumberland,
Durham, N. and E. York, Lincoln, Northampton, Huntingdon, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk,
Bedford, Hertford, Middlesex and Essex (excluding London suburbs); and to the western sample
(mainly pastoral) Cumberland, Westmorland, Lancashire, W. York, all Wales, Cheshire, Derby,
Stafford, Shropshire, Warwick, Hereford, Gloucester, Wiltshire, Somerset, Dorset, Devon and Corn-
wall. For distribution of counties in Colquhoun’s samples, see Colquhoun 1951
54 Effects of agricultural change on birds
Table 3. Percentage of Woodpigeon eggs hatched according to region and
month
The number of eggs laid is given in brackets. Western and eastern counties are
listed in the caption to fig. 6
BTO
BTO
BTO
Cambridgeshire
Suburban
Western
Eastern
Spike Hall
Carlton
1 95 1 -69
1 95 !■ -69
1957-69
1961-69
1959-70
February
March
} 26(54)
27 (22)
20 (20)
April
34 (i49)
13 (213)
12 (73)
May
19 (i43)
23 (376)
21 (188)
67 (9)
0 (5)
June
35 (136)
24 (393)
27 (199)
65 (167)
53 (186)
July
33 (54)
29 (257)
37 (02)
61 (354)
62 (518)
August
j 50(26)
42 (172)
73 (109)
50 (303)
63 (53i)
September
33 (98)
70 (33)
55 (214)
60 (319)
October
0(8)
30 (53)
TOTALS
30 (169)
26 (394)
34 (795)
57 (1,055)
60 (1,612)
BTO records suffer from observer bias, because people concentrate
on finding nests in the spring, and for this reason they are not an
absolute representation of the real breeding season in either area.
However, there is no reason to doubt that this bias has affected both
samples in much the same way, and partial confirmation comes from
records collected by Colquhoun (1951), also depicted in fig. 6.
Obviously, the feeding prospects for those pigeons breeding late in
the season are totally different in regions where no or few cereals are
grown from those pertaining in East Anglia. This is reflected in
hatching and fledging success (tables 3 and 4). Other unpublished
records for suburban London sites and for Cambridgeshire are
included in the tables for comparison, none of these records suffering
from any seasonal observer bias. It is seen that hatching success
early in the season was similar in both the pastoral western and
arable eastern counties, but it improved markedly during the second
half of the season in the east. Presumably in either region those
birds which attempt to breed in the spring occupy deciduous wood-
land. But in eastern England more and more birds can be found
nesting in scrub and hedgerow sites as the season progresses and
first-year birds settle to breed and take advantage of the ripening
cereal crop. The average breeding success, calculated as the product
of hatching and fledging success, was slightly higher in the east than
in the west (23% of eggs laid gave rise to fledged young in eastern
England, against 16% in the west). But, because breeding is propor-
tionately concentrated in the more propitious summer season in the
east, the real difference in terms of productivity must be consider-
able; for example, the breeding success in August in the west was
33%, compared with 64% in the east.
Effects of agricultural change on birds 55
Table 4. Percentage of Woodpigeon nestlings fledged according to region
and month
The number of chicks hatched is given in brackets. Western and eastern counties
are listed in the caption to fig. 6
BTO
BTO
BTO
Cambridgeshire
Suburban
Western
Eastern
Spike Hall
Carlton
1951-69
1951-69
1957-69
1961-69
1 959*7°
February
March
} 73(h)
April
50 (52)
54 (24)
15 (13)
May
57 (37)
63 (35)
42 (33)
50 (6)
June
71 (52)
49 (116)
54 (52)
70 (109)
84 (98)
July
94 (49)
64 (1 12)
70 (69)
9« (2«5)
91 (323)
August
80 (15)
79 (107)
87 (89)
95 (150)
93 (334)
September
October
75 (24) j
58 (79)
89 (28)
89 ("7)
84 (191)
56 (16)
TOTALS
70 (240)
62 (473)
68 (284)
87 (597)
89 (962)
Since first-year birds do not breed until early July, they must be
relatively unproductive in pastoral areas until their second year,
whereas in eastern England young birds acquire breeding capacity
in time to exploit the cereal harvest. Thus proportionately more of
the total population experiences a high breeding success in the east
than in the west and in consequence the reproductive rate must be
higher in the east. Compensation is to be expected in the form of an
increased juvenile mortality or a reduced life-expectancy for adults.
Mortality could be expressed by a higher rate of emigration, but
recoveries of ringed birds between April and September show no
significant difference between the two samples in the proportion of
birds moving more than five miles (20% of 45 birds in the west,
23% of 222 in the east; x\ =0.14). Similar data for recoveries
between October and March were 57% of 75 birds in the west, and
50% of 323 in the east (x* = 1.37). The average annual adult
mortality rate of Woodpigeons ringed as nestlings in eastern England
was 41%, compared with 36% in the west (and 35% in Scotland).
Since the patterns in the west and in Scotland did not differ, these
records are combined in fig. 7 to illustrate that there was a poorer
survival of Woodpigeons in the arable east, particularly during tire
first two years of life.* Of 493 recoveries of birds ringed as nestlings
in the east, 77% had been shot, while in the west 84% of 122 had
*The original data were assembled as a 2 X 7 array for x2 comparison, with
years 6-14 grouped. With x* = 1 1 • 1 3 the differences were not significant overall.
However, comparison of first-year recoveries and first + second year showed
higher mortality in the east than in the west (x2 = 5.19, X* = 6-97 respectively;
P<0.05), but the significance vanished when more years were included (x2
= 7-04, x\ = 7-30).
Effects of agricultural change on birds
56
Fig. 7. Survival curves for Woodpigeons ringed as nesdings in the west of Britain
(including Scotland), and in the east. The original data have been converted
to 1,000 nesdings initially present, and successive points denote numbers alive
at one-year intervals, years running from 1st March
The eastern counties were those designated in the caption to fig. 6, plus Nottingham, Leicester and
Rutland, Buckingham, Oxford, Wiltshire, Berkshire, Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex and Kent. All
other English counties, Wales and the whole of Scotland contributed to the west, since a preliminary
analysis showed no differences between Scotland and the western counties of England plus Wales.
The average adult mortality rate in the east was 41 ± 1.4%, compared with 36 ± 1.6% in the west
and Scotland
been shot. These proportions do not differ significantly (xl = 3. 13),
so shooting cannot be held responsible for the additional mortality
in arable areas.
There are few species with the capacity for a phenotypic adjust-
ment of the breeding season comparable with the Woodpigeon.
Several seed-eating finches which breed late in the year appear to
be expanding on farmland, for example the Goldfinch, Linnet and
Redpoll. In contrast, the Chaffinch has declined on farmland, and
pesticides have been suggested as the cause. But the Chaffinch has
a short breeding season to coincide with the availability of defoliat-
ing caterpillars, and an inability to reproduce in late summer. This
may well have prevented it from compensating for the loss of spring
food already discussed. The advantage gained by the Red-legged
Partridge in being able to breed later than the Grey Partridge has
already been mentioned (page 47; see also Potts 1970). But, while
few species have been able to adjust their breeding season radically
to cope with an artificial cropping pattern, several have achieved a
57
Effects of agricultural change on birds
higher breeding success and productivity on farmland (and in
suburbia) than in their natural habitats, evidence relating to the
Blackbird, Song Thrush, Dunnock and Chaffinch having been
given by Snow and Mayer-Gross (1967). Any increase in repro-
ductive rate must result in a population increase or be compensated
for by a higher mortality or rate of emigration, and this suggests that
the rate of population turnover is higher on farmland than in wood-
land. This trend will allow some species to become more efficient at
removing residues of toxic chemicals from the ecosystem without
detriment to their own populations, but at the same time the risk of
secondary contamination for any predatory species must increase.
The essential point is that the farmland populations of many species
will be better able to compensate for excessive mortality than popu-
lations of the same species living in natural habitats. Given an in-
crease in the rate of population replacement, circumstances must
favour an increase in genetic diversity and in opportunities for
selection to operate.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE COMMUNITY
There are few species absolutely dependent on lowland arable
farmland for their welfare in Britain, but several for which farm-
land contributes a large proportion of the total population; the
partridges, pigeons, Turtle Dove, Rook, Whitethroat, Corn Bunting
and Yellow-hammer are examples. There is no indication that the
survival of any species in Britain is threatened (though the lot of
birds of prey could be improved) by potential changes within the
farming scene (excluding the expansion of farmland to other
habitats), and the main efforts of conservationists are focused on
maintaining as high a faunal diversity as possible and in facilitating
the rational exploitation of game species. To these ends the removal
of hedgerows is usually regarded as detrimental (see Hooper and
Holdgate 1970) but, in the absence of factual data, the topic tends
to become emotive. However, it is possible to make some assessments
and predictions from several censuses of different kinds of farmlands,
and fig. 8 gives details (explained more fully on pages 59-60). For
instance, Murton (1971) monitored the avifauna on 200 acres of
arable farmland at Carlton, Cambridgeshire, from November i960
to December 1963 and reproduced a map of the study area. The
same site was studied again between February 1971 and October
1972, using exactly the same census techniques, after fairly drastic
changes in land use had occurred (summarised in table 5) ; these
changes are typical of those which have occurred over large tracts
of lowland arable farmland. Williamson (1971) published a breed-
ing bird census conducted in 1970 on a 310-acre Dorset dairy farm
(excluding a 20-acre deciduous wood). This comprised about 26
Number of individuals per 100 acres
Fig. 8. Numbers of species at different densities (individuals per ioo acres) in
various surveys on farmland. (Density plotted on logarithmic scale, so that all
regressions refer to number of species against log10 density.) Common Birds Cen-
sus data for Dorset (based on Williamson 1971) and Suffolk (based on Benson and
Williamson 1972) refer to counts of singing males and occupied territories; data
for species not normally covered by the CBC scheme are derived from those authors’
estimates. Data for Carlton, Cambridgeshire (lower four diagrams), are based on
direct counts in summer or winter (details in Murton 1971). S = total number of
species, N = total number of individuals, a = index of diversity, b = slope of
regression line (see pages 59-60)
59
Effects of agricultural change on birds
Table 5. Changes in land use in 200-acre study area at Carlton,
Cambridgeshire, between 1962 and 1972
Percentage 1962 1972
devoted to:
summer
winter
summer
winter
Pasture
1
I
I
I
Clover ley
9
13
-
-
Winter wheat
36
36
10
l6
Spring barley
21
72
-
Legumes (beans)
6
5
10
-
Roots (sugar-beet)
6
-
-
-
Plough
3
33
-
76
Fallow
6
—
-
-
Rough and waste
5
5
2
2
Hedgerow
3
3
I
I
Woodland
4
4
4
4
[fields, with 130 acres of water meadows. There were dense, well-
, grown, double hedgerows, often on either side of a bank flanked by
ditches, with many large mature trees and also several copses and
;pinneys. Benson and Williamson (1972) have also reported a
. :ensus of Reydon Grove Farm, Wangford, Suffolk, which is only
:wo miles from the sea. Farmland in coastal Suffolk was judged by
Vlurton (1971) to be among the most productive for birds because
tt often incorporates fragments of shore, heath or estuarine fauna,
indeed, Reydon Farm was such a site, for its 220 acres incorporated
drainage ditches, pools, areas of coarse grass and rushes, as well as
deciduous woods with scrub. In the Common Birds Census studies
jy Williamson and his associates, numerical estimates for such
lifficult species as Woodpigeon and House Sparrow, which are not
lormally censused by the CBC method, were also made.
Fisher et al. (1943) demonstrated a universal relationship between
he number of individuals per species and number of species in
random samples of animal and plant communities. The frequency
distribution of species represented by 1, 2, 3, . . . n individuals
ould best be described by a logarithmic series. Williams (1964)
examined many plant and animal samples to validate and extend
he scope of this empirical observation and should be consulted for
he detailed mathematical treatment. The salient point for the
>resent discussion is that there are constant terms in the equations
vhich can be written
S = a loge ( I + N/a)
/here S = number of species, N = total number of individuals, and
he constant a represents a measure of species diversity. There are
nly two parameters and only one possible series for any given
ombination of S and N. The constant a, which is common to all
imples from a single population, is high when diversity is high and
6o
Effects of agricultural change on birds
zero when all the individuals in a community belong to a single
species. This particular measure of diversity is probably as good as
any presently available — others exist which are based on informa-
tion theory — but they all suffer the major drawback that it is not
possible to calculate error terms. If N and S are known for any
population, a is easily obtained from the nomograph given by
Williams (1964).
Fig. 8 shows that, when the number of species is plotted against
the logarithm ol the number of individuals per 100 acres of farm-
land, a common pattern emerges. Diversity is high if the points are
clustered to the left, for this indicates the existence of many species
and few individuals. These results are perhaps unexpected, for
they confound the conclusions which might have been made on
subjective judgements. In spite of relatively drastic changes in the
farm scene at Carlton, the diversity of breeding birds has actually
increased during the last decade. This is probably significant,
for the total number of breeding species has increased (see table 6)
though the total number of all individual birds has declined
(fig. 2 illustrated the decline of the Woodpigeon). On the other
hand, the number of species present in winter has fallen over the
decade from 53 to 47 (fig. 8). It would be unrealistic to expect any
farm to have more and better hedges than those found in the Dorset
sample, but this aesthetically pleasing site had a bird diversity in
1970 which was intermediate between Carlton in i960 and 1971.
This rules out any suggestion that the hedgerow acreage at Carlton
had already reached a critical level in i960 so that further deple- t
tions caused relatively little effect. If N increases while a remains
constant, then S must increase. This was the situation at the Suffolk
farm which, although it supported a very high total ol individual
birds, had the same ecological diversity as the other two farms. The
species unique to the Suffolk site were Teal Anas crecca, Shoveler
A. clypeata , Shelduck Tadorna tadorna, Oystercatcher, Snipe and
Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos (also Reed Warbler Acrocephalus
scirpaceus, present in Suffolk and Dorset but not at Carlton), none L
of which is a typical farmland species; indeed, the first five are I
maish or seashore birds which presumably obtained some if not '
most of their food away from the farm.
All the sites had a small amount of woodland without which such !
species as Treecreeper would probably disappear. Nevertheless, the fi
inclusion of a large 20-acre woodland block into the Dorset sample c
did not increase the diversity of the combined area. Since increase ft
in sample size, whether in terms of number of animals counted or area w
searched, involves an increase in both S and N, caution is needed h
when results obtained for a large or small area are averaged on a
100-acre basis. Because a species is recorded in a 200-acre plot it
6i
lEjfects of agricultural change on birds
does not follow that it will be present in a ioo-acre sample. Similarly,
f territories are mapped it is not justifiable to assume that those at
he edge of the sample plot represent two individuals, for one of the
tair may really contribute to the adjoining sample.
There are no figures referring to ‘prairie-type’ farms lacking any
ledges or copses. But Glue (1970b) censused the breeding birds on
'oo acres of the Furufjordur in north-west Iceland. The area com-
irised coastal sand-dunes, a shingle platform and the meadows of
deserted farmland. There were 71 pairs of 20 species, giving an
ndex of about 12-13. Similarly, 218 acres of Westmorland farm
ielded 191 pairs of 38 species, giving an index of 12-15 depending
n whether individuals or pairs are considered (Robson and
Villiamson 1972). Two further sets of data which are of interest
refer to a census count made at a 100-acre Hampshire gravel pit by
.Hue (1970a) in 1963 and again in 1968. As before, he recorded his
esults as number of pairs, and it is evident that in many cases he
recorded one bird, perhaps a singing male, and then assumed the
u resence of a mate. For this reason, diversity is best calculated in
•rms of the number of encounters, and values of a so obtained are
2 in 1962 and 17 in 1968. Moreover, during the course of this
udy, eight acres of bare gravel were created by bulldozing, nest-
oxes were erected and an electricity sub-station was built, and it
1 cents that these various man-made alterations helped to increase
le species diversity (details in Glue 1970a).
The summer census data for Carlton depicted in fig. 8 refer only
) the breeding species; sporadic non-breeding visitors were omitted,
tough such vagrants were included in the winter records. Table 6
. Composition of the avifauna on 200-acre arable farmland study area at
Carlton, Cambridgeshire, in 1971-72 compared with 1960-61
The species are listed in appendix 2 on page 69
number of species which : Total species
Did not change Increased Decreased Were Were recorded in
in status in number in number gained lost both periods
* :r
•sr
® visitor
» ’agrant
if
UMMER
I ? R
si"
isitor
* a8rant
•T
VINTER
18
6
l6
4
3
47
3
2
4
3
I
13
2
0
O
2
2
6
23
8
20
9
6
66
12
12
I I
3
8
46
0
2
3
I
I
7
I
0
0
2
3
6
13
14
14
6
12
59
62
Effects of agricultural change on birds
summarises the status of all species recorded in either summer or
winter between 1960-61 and 1971-72 at Carlton (species listed in
appendix 2), and shows that the frequency of occurrence of vagrants
and passage birds did not change over the period. More breeding
species decreased than increased, and on balance there was a
reduction in total numbers (fig. 8) . Species which decreased included
Grey Partridge, Woodpigeon, Skylark, Linnet and House Sparrow,
these being among the commonest resident species of farmland.
Reductions were also noted in the numbers of the Lapwing, Turtle
Dove, Corn Bunting and Goldfinch. Of resident species present in
i960, Green Woodpecker, Jackdaw and Magpie were absent in
1971, as was the Tree Pipit of summer visitors. The cultivation
of an area of rough neglected grass and scrub, the site of an old war-
time personnel encampment, accounted for the disappearance of
several of these species, and also for some loss of Swallows which
used the old huts and shelters for nesting. However, there was a
compensatory increase of House Martins, this species seemingly
being able to range further afield from its nesting places to fill the
local niche for an aerial feeder.
New breeding species recorded in 1971 were Great Spotted
Woodpecker (contrasting with loss of Green Woodpecker), Coal
Tit, Sedge Warbler, Garden Warbler, Chiffchaff (contrasting with
decreases of Blackcap and Whitethroat), Goldcrest and Redpoll.
Although the total numbers involved were in all cases small (two
or less individuals per 100 acres), it is significant that the Coal Tit,
Goldcrest and Redpoll have undergone a national increase on farm-
land, as judged by CBC returns (Batten 1971a et seq.). Species which
increased in numbers included Stock Dove, Blue Tit, Willow Tit,
Lesser Whitethroat, Starling, Greenfinch and Reed Bunting (the
last again a national trend, from Batten 1972). The Stock Dove
appears to be better adapted to open arable farmland without leys
than the Woodpigeon, presumably because it specialises in collecting
weed seeds from bare ground (Murton et al. 1964), which probably
explains its success in Breckland, an extreme prairie habitat. It is
likely that the national improvement in the status of the Stock
Dove (see Batten 1972, 1973) depends on the trend to more inten-
sive arable farming rather than on a recovery from supposed
mortality due to toxic chemicals.
CONCLUSIONS
It is clearly impossible to make value judgements of whether
agricultural practices are good or bad for bird communities. At
Carlton the trends have resulted in fewer Woodpigeons but more
Stock Doves; Song Thrushes displaced by the clearance of hedgerows
have been replaced by Reed Buntings, while the summer Blackbird
Effects of agricultural change on birds 63
population has remained unchanged. Blackbirds which in the early
1960*5 nested in high, thick hedges now built a few inches above the
ditch banks where the ground vegetation intermixes with hedgerow
stumps. Their actual territories remain unchanged, presumably
because the same feeding sites exist, these being primarily on the
ground along the ditch sides. We might speculate that with less
vegetation the ground dries out more readily, making invertebrates
more difficult to find, but this could affect breeding success without
influencing population size.
It follows that the structure and, more important, the diversity
of the farmland avifauna is not affected by relatively drastic changes
in land use. This makes it pointless to condemn hedgerow removal
or other farming trends on general grounds. The essential need is
to treat individual species on their own merits and to introduce
management schemes with defined objectives; these might centre
on improving conditions for a game species or reducing damage by
a pest. The conservationist should be less concerned with what
happens on the farm per se, provided agricultural practice does not
result in widescale hazards to wildlife through indiscriminate use
of toxic chemicals or the pollution of waterways. While the objec-
tives of agriculture must be towards improvements in yields and
efficiency, conservation interests ought to concentrate attention on
those small areas of habitat which support an interesting and locally
unique flora and fauna. Isolated wetlands, plots of natural grassland,
gravel pits, scrub or woodland may occur in agricultural areas
and be under the influence of farmers, but they are to be distin-
guished from the farmland ecosystem. Hedgerows appear to be
suboptimal habitats which have become a red herring so far as the
real issues affecting the welfare of birds in Britain are concerned.
Williams (1964) examined census data collected by R. E. Moreau
in East Africa and demonstrated that there were many times as many
congeneric species per habitat than would be expected from a
random sample. This apparently confounds the generally held view
that closely related species are likely to have similar feeding
requirements and so be potential competitors. He concluded from
a wide study of various plant and animal groups that this was
generally true, that it might well depend on closely related species
being adapted to similar physical conditions, and that this might be
sufficient to affect the drawbacks consequent on competition for
food or living space. This is an interesting concept that may well
repay more detailed study on farmland. At Carlton we have noted a
tendency for many closely related breeding species to occur together
at low population densities, for example seven warblers, six finches,
and three buntings. Moreover, in those cases which have been
examined in detail, the foods and feeding habits of closely related
64 Effects of agricultural change on birds
species become less clearly differentiated on farmland than in
natural habitats (see Newton 1967 for the finches). It may be that
physiological and physical factors assume more importance than
purely ecological ones in habitats drastically altered by man. If this
is true, our ideas about conserving these species will need adjustment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a pleasure to thank Stanley Cramp for critically reading a draft of this paper
and making helpful suggestions for its improvement. We also thank the British
Trust for Ornithology for allowing us to analyse and present nest record card and
ringing data pertinent to the Woodpigeon.
SUMMARY
The complex factors affecting the farmland avifauna have remained relatively
unstudied. Indeed, in this review it has been necessary to illustrate several of the
processes which are probably affecting a wide range of species by reference to
unpublished material for the Woodpigeon. The following major topics are discussed
with examples (for scientific names see appendix 2 on page 69) :
(1) The fact that farmland and the constituent hedgerows are a suboptimal
habitat for the majority of species has been demonstrated in studies of the Great
Tit (Krebs), Wren (Williamson) and Woodpigeon. Many of the adaptations
of birds, such as genotypically determined seasonal variations in clutch size or
egg weight, are inappropriate in unnatural habitats.
(2) Changes in farming practice may cause a direct decline of some species
due to a loss of some critical factor. Thus modern trends to continuous cereal
production at the expense of winter ley and forage crops have resulted in marked
declines of both the Woodpigeon and the Grey Partridge. Factors affecting the
availability of earthworms in June and early July determine the size of the Rook
population in the following breeding season. The effect of herbicides and insecti-
cides on the soil fauna is discussed in this context.
(3) Changes in the seasonal distribution of food supplies have necessitated that
some species change their breeding seasons. This is discussed in relation to the
Woodpigeon. In some species this has not been possible because the proximate
regulation of reproductive activity depends on physiological mechanisms con-
trolled by day length and other factors not directly linked with food resources. There
is a tendency for those species able to breed late in the year, such as the Redpoll
and Reed Bunting, to be more successful on farmland than those with a limited
spring breeding season, such as the Chaffinch.
(4) A 200-acre farmland site at Carlton, Cambridgeshire, was censused in 1960-61
and again using the same methods in 1971-72; in the interim, hedgerows, waste
grassland and scrub had been lost. Changes, including both decreases and in-
creases in numbers of individual species, are detailed. In toto more species but
fewer individual birds bred in 1971 than in i960, so that there was no decrease,
and perhaps an increase, in species diversity as defined by Fisher et at. (1943).
Other census data are reviewed to show that species diversity remains approxi-
mately constant from pastoral areas supporting dense hedges and woodland
pockets to relatively barren East Anglian arable farmland, contrary to popular
opinion. It would be wiser to study individual species rather than draw general
conclusions based on habitat changes. An unusually large number of closely
related species co-exist on farmland, presumably because population densities
are low, but this fact needs more investigation.
Pi.atk 5. C.rey Heron Arden cinerea. Kenya. March 1973: the sparse resident
population in East Africa is generally thought to be augmented by migrants from
the lalearctic during the northern winter (pages 70-76) (photo: J. F. Reynolds )
Plate 6. Purple Heron Ardea purpurea , Kenya, October 1972, a species whose
status in East Africa is similar to the Grey Heron’s but which habitually skulks
in dense cover and is rarely seen in the open (page 70) (photo: J. F. Reynolds)
Plate 8. Male Pallid Harrier Circus macrourus, Kenya, March 1973, perhaps on
return passage from farther south. This is one of three Palearctic harriers
which winter in open African grasslands (pages 71-72) {photo: J. F. Reynolds)
fit.
Plate 9. Female Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni, Kenya, February 1973. a gre-
garious species even during its long migrations from Eurasia and in its winter
quaiters, which are mainly in southern Africa (page 72) {photo: J. /■'. Reynolds!
Plate io. Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus and, below, Ruff Philomachus pugnax,
Kenya, February 1973, both widespread winter visitors to East Africa, though
the former is rather scarce and solitary (pages 72-73) ( photos : J. F. Reynolds)
4U ii. Above, Blue-
Bee-eater Merops
H 'is, Tanzania, April
'light, Red-throated
thus cervinus, Kenya,
1973, a Palearctic
sintering in mainly
1 1 habitats in variable
>i as far south as
0 Tanzania (pages 73-
1 'os: J. F. Reynolds)
Plate 12. Above, Black-headed Wagtail Motacilla flava feldegg, Kenya, March
1 973 1 breeding in the Balkans and south-west Asia, this is one of at least six
races of Yellow Wagtails wintering in East Africa. Below, Isabclline Wheatear
Oenanlhe isabellina, Kenya, February 1973 (pages 74-76) ( photos : J. F. Reynolds)
Effects of agricultural change on birds
65
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1972. ‘Bird population changes for the years 1970-71’. Bird Study, 19: 241-248.
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Blank, T. H., Southwood, T. R. E., and Cross, D. J. 1967. ‘The ecology of the
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Dobbs, A. 1964. ‘Rook numbers in Nottinghamshire over 35 years’. Brit. Birds.
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1969. ‘Rook population of Derbyshire’. Bird Study, 16: 72-73.
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the number of species and the number of individuals in a random sample of an
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66 Effects of agricultural change on birds
Fletcher, W. W. 1966. ‘The effects of herbicides on soil micro-organisms’. Proc.
Brit. Weed Control Con/., 8: 896-906.
Fryer, J. D., and Chancellor, R. J. 1970. ‘Herbicides and our changing weeds’.
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1963-68’. Bird Study, 17: 15-27.
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Heppleston, P. B. 1971. ‘The feeding ecology of Oystercatchers ( Haematopus
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Effects of agricultural change on birds 67
, Isaacson, A. J., and Westwood, N. J. 1974. ‘Factors affecting egg-weight,
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Robson, R. W., and Williamson, K. 1972. ‘The breeding birds of a Westmorland
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D. Price-Jones and M. E. Solomon. Oxford.
Thurston, T. M. 1969. ‘Weed studies on Broadbalk’. Rep. Rothamsted Expl. Stn.
(1968): 186-208. '
Williams, C. B. 1964. Patterns in the Balance of Nature and Related Problems in Quanti-
tative Ecology. London.
Williamson, K. 1967. ‘The bird community of farmland’. Bird Study, 14: 210-226.
1969. ‘Habitat preferences of the Wren on English farmland’. Bird Study,
16: 53-59-
1971- ‘A bird census study of a Dorset dairy farm’. Bird Study, 18: 80-96.
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Appendix i. Annual variations in Rook numbers in 2,647-acre study area at Carlton, Cambridgeshire, and in their earthworm
and cereal food supplies, 1964-71
Correlation tests between various columns give the following results:
g g c
G G G
u u o
*2 ’2 *2
.SP.SP.SP
*t/5 " 00 ’ in
V
£1
to Cl -
o ^ co
CO r^cq
6 6 6
g
*£3
G G G
co co co
T3
G
g
T3 T3
G G
G <3
c
o
G o
1/3
g -T-3
c
xj ^
G -
"cvT
t*«co
ci co ^ o
G
2
C rS
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CS "
CO
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G
G
G
G
U
cG
~ <N *;u
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• • bo
° ° -a
V V g
o
Ph P-i G
6) rp
CO CO CO
CO CO CO
6 6 6
2
bo
CC
CO
c n O
G ^
2
5 bo
o’§
u >
G £l
co co
T3 T3 T)
C G G
G G G
m
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G G
G G
o u
cG cG
l'a
V
bD
c •= .ST'S
3 x S
2 « g u
' Tl « >
.s
o
<u c
_Q •-
T)
a
3
c
£
y .£ 3
TI 3 » D
e o £ g
u £ 3
C/5 ^ t— s
1/3 QJ 3
£ a
2 a
bo rt
11s J
1> u ^
O O CT)
CO 03 O
t}- q
odd
I I
> 0
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a j=
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o £
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c $
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S t* 3
3 3 "-s
£ to .2
• £ ‘o
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3
O C^T
‘Z3 C
u in 3
O T3 |Zl
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1^
g-*-* Cl
2 S'
2
y
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c J2 <
IJ?
1^ £
o 2
Tt- O co ^ co
n c£> tO ^ CT)
§ 1 o "5 'co - co
~ 01 ^ ' — -
q 1 (n m co d
Vo ci in a
"§5 1 'S "CO ^ ^ O
co m co o
cs | m 01 o n»
in co ^ co - o
d Tf Tt- G «
01 — ^
CO
CO Tt" (N co VO
Cf - « X.
o ~ ^ CO
«-• (N ►-
O tN o
CO Th-'^'O n CO CO
Cl N O O O O CO
(N(NC4 — 0«(NC4CI
0
(53 S>
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ci
01
m m
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m
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0
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rt <53
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CD
CD
IX
IX IX
p
-
9% 47 (36) 1 (0.5)
>endix 2. Status, and change in abundance, of each species recorded at Carlton,
Cambridgeshire, between 1960-61 and 1971-72
general status of each species is given as r (resident, breeding), sv (summer visitor, breed-
, wv (regular winter visitor, not breeding) or p (passage or vagrant occasionally recorded),
numerical abundance in summer (S, April-September) and winter (W, October-March)
ng 1971-72 is given in terms of that during 1960-61 as l (lost), g (gained), D (decreased),
1 creased) or n (no change) ; a dash indicates that the species has never been recorded at the
season shown
CHANGE
CHANGE
Status
S
w
Status
S
W
, ' Heron Ardea cinerea
(p)
L
L
Long-tailed Tit Aegithalos
l.iard Anas platyrhynchos
(r)
N
G
caudatus
(R)
N
I
’ rel Valeo tinnunculus
(R)
N
N
Treecreeper Certhia familiaris
(R)
N
N
•legged Partridge
Wren Troglodytes troglodytes
(r)
N
I
ectoris rufa
(R)
D
D
Mistle Thrush Turdus
' Partridge Perdix perdix
(r)
D
D
viscivorus
(r)
N
L
issant Phasianus colchicus
(r)
D
D
Fieldfare T. pilaris
(wv)
-
D
tr Rail Rallus aquaticus
(p)
-
G
Song Thrush T. philomelos
(r)
D
D
rhen Gallinula chloropus
(r)
N
I
Redwing T. iliacus
(wv)
-
D
»ving Vanellus vanellus
(r, wv)
D
D
Blackbird T. merula
(r)
N
D
lden Plover Pluvialis
Wheatear Oenanlhe oenanthe
(p)
N
-
■ r icaria
(wv)
-
L
Robin Erithacus rubecula
(r)
D
N
- e Gallinago gallinago
(p)
G
N
Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus
>dcock Scolopax rusticola
(p)
-
L
schoenobaenus
(sv)
G
-
ew Numenius arquata
(p)
G
-
Blackcap Sylvia alricapilla
(sv)
D
-
•er Black-backed Gull
Garden Warbler S. borin
(sv)
G
-
:■ rus fuscus
(p)
-
L
Whitethroat S. communis
(sv)
D
—
ing Gull L. argentatus
(p)
L
-
Lesser Whitethroat S. curruca
(sv)
1
-
i! mon Gull I.. cantis
(p, wv)
N
I
Willow Warbler Phylloscopus
k<-headcd Gull L.
trochilus
(sv)
N
—
fi ibundus
(WV)
-
I
ChiffchafT P. collybita
(sv)
G
-
k c Dove Columba oenas
(r)
1
I
Goldcrest Regulus regulus
(R)
G
C
- dpigeon C. palumbus
(r)
D
D
Spotted Flycatcher
lc Dove Streptopelia
Muscicapa striata
(sv)
N
-
tur
(sv)
D
-
Dunnock Prunella modularis
(r)
D
D
r; Owl Athene noctua
(r)
N
N
Meadow Pipit Anthus
: ay Owl Strix aluco
(r)
N
N
pratensis
(r)
D
N
Apus apus
(sv)
N
-
Tree Pipit A. trivialis
(sv)
L
-
n Woodpecker Picas
Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba
(r)
N
L
idis
(R)
L
L
Starling Stumus vulgaris
(r)
I
I
1 t Spotted Woodpecker
Greenfinch Carduelis chloris
(r)
I
I
• ndrocopos major
(R)
G
L
Goldfinch C. carduelis
(R)
D
I
i irk Alauda arvensis
(r)
D
D
Linnet Acanthis cannabina
(r)
D
D
low Hirundo rustica
(sv)
D
-
Redpoll A. Jlammea
(R)
G
G
ie Martin Delichon
Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula
(r)
N
N
•ica
(sv)
1
-
Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs
(R)
N
D
1 ion Crow Conns cor one
(r)
N
L
Brambling F. montifringilla
(wv)
-
G
: : C. frugilegus
(r)
D
N
Corn Bunting Emberiza
law C. monedula
(R)
L
D
calandra
(r)
D
L
pie Pica pica
(r)
L
L
Yellowhammer E. citrinella
(r)
N
I
Sarrultts glandarius
(R)
N
N
Reed Bunting E. schoeniclus
(r)
1
I
t Tit Partis major
(r)
N
N
Snow Bunting Plectrophenax
Tit P. caeruleus
(r)
1
I
nivalis
(p)
—
G
Tit P. ater
(r)
G
L
House Sparrow Passer
h Tit P. palustris
(r)
N
N
domesticus
(r)
D
I
>w Tit P. montanus
(R)
I
I
Tree Sparrow P. montanus
(r)
D
N
Palearctic birds in East Africa
J. F. Reynolds
Plates 5- 12
Enormous numbers of Palearctic birds — estimated by Moreau
(1972) to be of the order of 5,000 million— winter in Africa south of
the Sahara. Their impact on the ecology of the African avifauna
is still largely speculative, but some at least, notably the harriers
Circus spp, the Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni and the Yellow Wagtail
Motacilla Jlava, fill niches that, effectively, are unoccupied by African
birds. The selection of species for this feature on Palearctic migrants
in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda has been based mainly on the
availability of suitable photographs.
Grey Heron Ardea drier ea and Purple Heron A. purpurea (plates 5-6)
The rather small and scattered resident East African populations
of the Grey and Purple Herons are both considered to be augmented
by Palearctic migrants during the northern winter, though there is
very little real evidence for this except for one recovery of a Russian-
ringed Grey Heron in Kenya. Since East African herons breed
mainly between February and June, ‘winter’ records of Grey and
Purple Herons away from breeding areas could refer either to
Palearctic migrants or to local wanderers.
The habits of these two herons in Africa are not noticeably dif-
ferent from those of birds in Europe. The Purple Heron is closely
associated with tall reeds (plate 6) and is seldom seen in the open.
The Grey Heron occasionally hunts for rodents and other small prey
on dry land, thereby ‘trespassing’ on the niche of the Black-headed
Heron A. melanocephala: competition is unlikely, however, as
neither species is abundant and few Grey Herons feed away from
water.
In Nairobi National Park, Kenya, where these photographs were
taken, fish are absent from most of the small reservoirs favoured
by herons and other wading birds. In such waters, adults and tad-
poles of the aquatic Clawed Toads Xenopus spp (probably mostly X.
laevis ) appear to be the most frequently taken prey.
White Stork Ciconia ciconia (plate 7a)
Moreau (1972) estimated that somewhere in the region of 700,000
White Storks from Europe and Asia spend the winter in Africa,
predominantly on the eastern side as far south as the Cape. They are
mainly found in flocks on the great plains, such as the Serengeti,
70
Palearctic birds in East Africa 71
over which they wander widely, gathering with astonishing rapidity
at the periphery of grass fires to gorge on dead and disabled grass-
hoppers and locusts; presumably storks riding a thermal can see
smoke from many kilometres away. The single bird shown hunting
for Clawed Toads in company with a Yellow-billed Stork Mycteria
ibis is thus rather atypical.
Most of G. C. Backhurst’s annual ‘East African Bird Ringing
Reports’ record East African recoveries of storks ringed at Pale-
arctic breeding places, ranging from io°46'E in West Germany to
3i°E in Russia, but with most birds from East Germany at about
I2°io'E.
'Steppe Eagle Aquila rapax orientalis (plate 7b)
Most authorities (e.g. Brown and Amadon 1968) regard the Steppe
1 Eagle as a race orientalis of the widespread African and Asian
Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax, but some (e.g. Christensen el al. 1972)
consider it to be the western race (breeding from eastern Europe to
the Kirghiz Steppes) of a separate Asiatic species A. nipalensis.
Loose flocks of Steppe Eagles start moving south in August,
[reaching winter quarters near the equator by October; the return
passage, when the birds travel singly or in pairs, is between February
and April. Not all birds can be safely distinguished from the
Tawny Eagles A. r. belisarius resident in East Africa, but adult
^Steppe Eagles are larger, with darker brown, more uniform plum-
age. Juveniles have white uppertail-coverts and whitish edges to
the feathers of the median and greater wing-coverts and secondaries,
so that there is a conspicuous flight pattern (sec fig. 32 in Christensen
et al. 1971) and a barred and scaled appearance when the wings are
fifolded.
Like the Tawny Eagle, it feeds to a large extent on carrion, but
also catches rodents, hares and francolins Francolinus spp. It is
■ a regular visitor to water holes where it both drinks and bathes.
The juvenile shown about to drink in plate 7b had previously been
up to its thighs in water and shortly after this photograph was
taken had a thorough bath, from which it emerged looking very
bedraggled.
allid Harrier Circus macrourus (plate 8)
hree Palearctic harriers (Marsh C. aeruginosus, Montagu’s C.
tygargus and Pallid) winter in open African grasslands where they
All a niche that, surprisingly, is largely unoccupied by African
raptors. The African Marsh Harrier, regarded by some authorities
(e.g. Williams 1963) as a race ranivorus of C. aeruginosus and as
1 distinct species C. ranivorus by, among others, Vaurie (1965), is
oy no means as restricted to marshes as European Marsh Harriers
72
Palearctic birds in East Africa
are in the breeding season (Brown and Amadon 1968) but, at any
rate in East Africa, its numbers are everywhere so small that many
grasslands are hunted over only by migrant Palearctic harriers.
Ornithologists with long experience in Africa (e.g. Brown 1970)
report that the numbers of all migrant harriers have markedly
declined during the last 20 years, possibly as a result of agricultural
developments in their breeding ranges. Even so, it is still possible
to see all three species, perhaps a dozen harriers in all, in a single
morning’s birdwatching on the plains around Nairobi in early
March. In winter quarters, harriers roost communally on dry ground
in longish grass, and in Tanzania all three migrant species have
been reported at the same roost (Brown 1970).
The Pallid Harrier, illustrated in plate 8, has habits typical
of the genus, spending much of the day quartering the ground in
leisurely flight with occasional rests on bare branches, posts or
boulders. Immatures and females arrive in equatorial regions in
early October, being followed two to three weeks later by adult
males. Some remain near the equator, but others move further
south so that there is a marked return passage in Kenya during
March.
Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni (plate 9)
Lesser Kestrels are mainly passage migrants in East Africa, move-
ment being most marked in late October and March. The birds are
usually in loose flocks of 20 or so, but in southern Africa flocks may
consist of a thousand or more birds. Mixed flocks with Kestrels
F. tinnunculus (also mainly a winter visitor, as the resident races are
rather uncommon) are not unusual and separation of females and
immatures in flight is far from easy (see Christensen et al. 1973) ; at
close quarters the almost white claws of the Lesser (see plate 9) are
diagnostic. The food is mainly large grasshoppers caught on the
ground, but often eaten on the wing, one foot being used to carry
the prey to the bill: Williams (1963) claims that this method of
feeding is a good distinction from the Kestrel.
Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus (plate 10a)
The Green Sandpiper is a widespread but uncommon winter visitor
to East Africa. It is a shy and usually solitary species favouring the
edges of small streams (even in forest) and the firm margins of
flooded murrain pits. About 40 have been ringed, but there have
been no recoveries.
Ruff Philomachus pugnax (plate 1 ob)
The Ruff is a widespread and abundant visitor to East Africa,
frequenting not only swampy and muddy edges of lakes (including
73
f °alearctic birds in East Africa
lighly alkaline ones such as Magadi) and reservoirs, but wet and
iry paddy fields and open grasslands, provided that water is within
asy reach. I have vivid memories of about ioo Ruffs feeding on
he bright green sward of Ngorongoro Crater among grazing Zebra
Iquus burchelli in December. Particularly in West Africa, Ruffs
orsake animal food to a large extent, feeding mainly on grass
teds, including rice left lying in the dry paddy fields after the
tarvest has been gathered.
In all, 4,206 Ruffs have been ringed in East Africa, mainly at
,akes Nakuru and Naivaisha. There have been seven recoveries
room the USSR at about 6o°N and as far east as I26°E. An eighth
recovery is of one ringed at Lake Nakuru on 12th April 1969 and
hot in Uttar Pradesh, India, on 16th February 1973, strongly
uggesting either that it left Africa much earlier than usual in 1973,
r that it stayed in Asia for its last winter (Backhurst 1973). Another
: ateresting case is that of a female ringed at Lake Nakuru on 10th
May 1970 when on passage (its weight was 49% above the mean
'/inter weight), yet recovered on the River Nadym in west Siberia
over 65°N, and 72°E) on 15th April 1971 (Backhurst 1972).
Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Merops superciliostis (plate 1 ia)
"he Blue-cheeked Bee-eater has been recorded as an accidental
isitor to Greece, Italy, Malta, France and Britain (Peterson et al.
965). Its extreme rarity in Europe seems rather surprising, as one
.ace {persicus ) breeds at 40°N around the Caspian, and another
(chrysocercns) in Tunisia. Fry (1969) suggested that its inability
i a penetrate into Europe is a result of its being physiologically
dapted to breeding in very arid conditions.
Throughout East Africa, from the last week of August to the first
'/eek of May, the race persicus is a common winter visitor and passage
migrant to open country with scattered trees. It does not shun the
icinity of lakes and swamps, into which it will dive in pursuit of
quatic prey (Took 1963, Reynolds 1965). The Blue-cheeked Bee-
ater commonly associates with the European Bee-eater Al. apiaster,
taking specific identification of high-flying passage flocks difficult as
te calls, though frequently uttered, are not always safely distin-
uishable.
lied-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus (plate 1 1 b)
: a East Africa, northern Tanzania seems to be the southern limit
1 f the Red-throated Pipit’s winter range. Most records come from
te comparatively well-worked highland areas of Kenya where the
umbers appear to fluctuate front year to year, 1972-73 being a
ither good season. Although sometimes seen in lightly wooded dep-
astures in association with Tree Pipits A. trivialis, it is more often
74
Pale arctic birds in East Africa
seen in wet habitats such as muddy pastures and sewage filter beds,
often in company with Yellow Wagtails. The ringing efforts devoted
to the latter species around Nairobi have resulted in the ringing of
33 Red-throated Pipits, none of which have, as yet, been recovered
or retrapped in subsequent seasons.
Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava (plate 12a)
A number of authors, including Williamson (1955), think that
‘the’ Yellow Wagtail consists of two species: yellow-headed birds
Motacilla lutea and dark or blue-headed birds M. Jlava. Mayr ( 1 956)
pointed out that this matter cannot be resolved until more work has
been done on the mainly Russian breeding grounds of the more
easterly populations. Until then it is probably more convenient to
treat all these birds as a single species M. jlava with a number of
distinctively plumaged races breeding in different parts of the
Palearctic.
At least six races of the Yellow Wagtail winter in East Africa in
large numbers. They arrive in the Nairobi area by about the third
week in September and have sometimes reached Iringa in southern
Tanzania by the end of the month, though most of my Iringa
‘arrival’ dates fell in the second wtek of November. They leave
Iringa by the end of February but can be seen around Nairobi up to
the end of April; in general, the more southerly breeding popula-
tions move first and the most northerly ones last. Moreau (1972)
stressed that an essential feature of the winter habitat is unobstructed
ground which is most often provided by the grazing of cattle and
wild herbivores in both dry and moist grasslands. In pastures the
birds invariably associate with grazing mammals, thus filling a niche
left unoccupied by small African passerines. Flocks are seldom
formed except when going to roost and at times of migration.
Although mixing freely, the different races show definite habitat
preferences, as first noted by Wallace (1955). Thus, around Nairobi
most of the birds frequenting sewage farms are Eastern Yellow
Wagtails M. f. lutea while Blue-headed Wagtails M. f. flava pre-
dominate in the surrounding cattle pastures; in both habitats
smaller numbers of Grey-headed Wagtails M. f. thunbergi and
Sykes’s Wagtails M. f. beema are found alongside the numerically
dominant races. The distinctive Black-headed Wagtail M.f. feldegg
(plate 12a) prefers wetter habitats and is not uncommon around
water holes in Nairobi National Park where it associates with
Wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus and Zebra. Specimens showing the
characters of the White-headed Wagtail M.f. leucocephala have been
caught in the Nairobi area, though Vaurie (1959) did not include
Africa in the winter range of this race. Whether British-breeding
Yellow Wagtails M.f. flavissima reach East Africa is a controversial
75
palearctic birds in East Africa
natter, mainly because there are no completely satisfactory
norphological criteria for separating British Jlavissima from eastern
utea (Williamson 1955)*. Thus, in spite of Wallace (1955) giving
me definite modern Kenyan record of three wagtails showing
1 ypical Jlavissima characters, Moreau (1972) considered that the
mall numbers of the western Jlavissima population make it very
umlikely that Jlavissima- type wagtails seen, or collected — as, for
sample, by van Someren (1931) — actually originate from the
British population.
Most of the 30,000 Yellow Wagtails ringed in East Africa
tave been caught in mist nets around Nairobi, either at daytime
ceding areas on sewage farms where the record is 568 ‘new’ wag-
ails ringed by four people in six hours, or at roosts in Napier grass
}ennisetum purpureum. The latter can be very productive, but unfor-
unately the birds often change their roosts in midwinter and,
>artly because of the paucity of observers, new roosts often escape
detection. Such local shifts of concentration make the proving of
uspected recurrence in winter quarters somewhat difficult, but
ome 500 retraps have shown conclusively that some individuals
•winter in or pass through the same general area in subsequent years.
Seventeen Palearctic recoveries represent one recovery per 1,803
>irds ringed (in East Africa), a much lower ratio than in the Swallow
iiirundo rustica, where it is one per 278 ringed. Birds, presumably on
uassage, have been recovered in Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Iran (one
1 in each country). The remaining 14 recoveries are from breeding
grounds in the USSR, mainly between 52°N and 58°N, and between
li°E and 48°E, with one bird from Gydanskii Poluostrov at
1 pproximately 7o°N, 75°E.
'Sabelline Wheatear Oenanthe isabellina (plate 12b)
Tree species of Palearctic wheatears Oenanthe spp winter in East
Wfrica south to southern Tanzania, with odd birds straggling to
1 [Gambia. ‘The’ Wheatear 0. oenanthe is by far the most widespread
nd numerous, occurring from sea-level to 3,100 metres above sea-
"ivel on open plains and lightly wooded country. Particularly
orth of the equator, it can be seen alongside the Pied Wheatear
K pleschanka and the Isabelline Wheatear 0. isabellina, though the
itter is typically a bird of more arid country. In places like the
erengeti it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that there must be
ompetition with the much less numerous resident Capped Wheatear
K pileata. Certainly where wheatears are abundant both intra-
1 oecific and interspecific intolerance is well marked.
* It has, however, recently been shown by D. J. Pearson and G. C. Backhurst
j 'bis, 1 15: 589-591) that Kenyan Yellow Wagtails showing Jlavissima-type plumage
lay change to lutea- type plumage during or after the spring moult.
76 Palearctic birds in East Africa
The habits and habitats of these birds do not favour mist-netting,
so that only 46 Wheatears have been ringed in East Africa, together
with eight Isabelline and seven Pied.
When considering the environmental conditions under which
birds like wheatears live while in the tropics, it should be remem-
bered that the air temperature just above the ground is significantly
higher than the ‘standard’ temperatures recorded by meteorologists
in ventilated screens about 1.2 metres above the ground. Perching
on even slight elevations, as shown in plate 12b, lifts the bird into
slightly cooler air (see also plate 23b in Reynolds 1972).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I should like to thank G. C. Backhurst, organiser of the East Africa Natural History
Society Ringing Scheme, for making unpublished ringing data available, and
A. D. Forbes-Watson for reading the paper in manuscript.
REFERENCES
Backhurst, G. C. 1972. ‘East African Bird Ringing Report 1 970-1 97 1 ’. J. E. Afr.
Nat. Hist. Soc., 29 (136): 1-16.
1973- ‘Ringing News’. Bull. E. Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc. (1973): no.
Brown, L. 1970. African Birds of Prey. London.
and Amadon, D. 1968. Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World. Feltham.
Christensen, S., Nielsen, B. P., Porter, R. F., and Willis, I. 1972. ‘Flight
identification of European raptors. Part 3. Aquila and White-tailed Eagles’.
Brit. Birds, 65: 52-78 (72-75).
1973. ‘Flight identification of European raptors. Part. 8. Kestrels, Accipiters
and Black-winged Kite’. Brit. Birds, 66: 472-493 (476-481).
Ffy, C. H. 1969. ‘The evolution and systematics of Bee-eaters (Meropidae)’. Ibis,
in: 557-592.
Mayr, E. 1956. ‘The interpretation of variation among the Yellow Wagtails’. Brit.
Birds, 49: 1 1 5- 1 19.
Moreau, R. E. 1972. The Palaearctic- African Bird Migration Systems. London and
New York.
Peterson, R., Mountfort, G., and Hollom, P. A. D. 1965. A Field Guide to the
Birds of Britain and Europe. London. Second edition.
Reynolds, J. F. 1965. ‘Bee-eaters and Rollers diving into water’. E. Afr. Wildl.J.,
3: 129-130.
1972. ‘Photographs of immature Caspian Plovers’. Brit. Birds, 65: 124-125,
plates 23-24.
Took, J. M. E. 1963. ‘Bee-eaters diving into water’. Ostrich, 34: 176.
van Someren, V. G. L. 1 93 1. ‘Catalogue of the European and Asiatic migrants to
Kenya and Uganda’. J. E. Afr. Uganda Nat. Hist. Soc., special supplement 4:
27-28.
Vaurie, C. 1959. The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna: Passeriformes. London.
1965. The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna: Non-Passeriformes. London.
Wallace, D. I. M. 1955. ‘The mixing of the races of the Yellow Wagtail in Kenya’.
Brit. Birds, 48: 337-340.
Williams, J. G. 1963. A Field Guide to the Birds of East and Central Africa. London.
Williamson, K. 1955. ‘Migrational drift and the Yellow Wagtail complex’. Brit.
Birds, 48: 382-403.
J. F. Reynolds, P.O. Box 40584, Nairobi, Kenya
Notes
Aerial plunge-diving by Shags and Manx Shearwaters In a
irevious note {Brit. Birds , 65: 480-481), I described how Shags
f °halacrocorax aristotelis in the Isles of Scilly, while feeding over dense
hoals of small fish, sometimes took flight over the heads of their
:ompanions in order to plunge-dive into the sea, possibly after
>rey. I observed similar behaviour, though on a much smaller scale,
wice during the last week of June 1972 while seawatching from the
ugh clifTs overlooking Sennen Cove, Cornwall. On each occasion
about 50 Shags (probably the same birds) followed a shoal of fish
>n the incoming tide, numbers communally diving from the surface
>r taking flight only a metre or so above the sea to plunge-dive,
hough not submerging as they were in Scilly. On enquiry to
rawlermen in west Cornwall, I have been informed that it is not
inusual for Shags to plunge-dive from a height, but not in large
larties. Incidentally R. D. Pcnhallurick, in Birds of the Cornish
''■oast (1969), wrote that ‘Large gatherings are more frequently
loticed at Scilly where flocks of several hundred may be seen
throughout the year when conditions are favourable . . . Then rafts
)f a thousand birds have been recorded — as on 26 August i960 —
vhile gatherings of half this size are not uncommon especially in
September’, but he did not mention plunge-diving.
Aerial plunge-diving is also performed by Manx Shearwaters
Puffinus puffinus. During a five-hour seawatch on 23rd June 1972,
it St Ives Bay, Cornwall, I witnessed a remarkable feeding per-
1 ormance by large numbers of these birds. The wind was moderate
IVVNW with occasional drizzle; high tide occurred about 15.20 gmt.
At first, at 1 1. 1 5, only a few Manx Shearwaters were seen. Gradually
he rising tide brought a huge shoal of small fish deep into the bay
: md caused very large areas of surface water to ripple ; trawlermen
ell me that the fish were almost certainly Wlxitebait Clupea alba
driven into the bay by a shoal of Herrings C. harengus. Shearwaters
urged into the area in increasing numbers until I estimated that at
east 3,000 were present, with 1,000 more in large groups flying
n and out of the bay. There were huge floating rafts of shearwaters
eeding on surface fish; many birds were plunge-diving from heights
)f up to i-J metres and momentarily submerging, and many more
ust flopping into the sea to take surface food. All this activity was
ntermixed with the movements of many other shearwaters flying
o join groups well outside the area, the whole making an impressive
pectacle. All this occurred in broad daylight and a long way from
he nearest breeding colony. Bernard King
lull Cry, g Park Road , Newlyn, Cornwall
77
Notes
78
Occasional plunge-diving from the air by Manx Shearwaters,
entering the water with partly opened wings, was mentioned in The
Handbook (4: 42) and Handbook of North American Birds (1 : 193). Eds
Red-breasted Mergansers diving from the air On 15th April
1 973, at Portland Harbour, Dorset, we were watching a flock of 28
Red-breasted Mergansers Mergus senator diving in a loose pack.
They were moving quite fast and coming in towards the shore, and
from their behaviour we assumed that they were closing in on a
shoal of fish. Those finding themselves farthest from the front of the
flock started pattering along the surface, and on reaching the front
dived headlong into the water. Other birds actually took flight,
several reaching a height of a metre before diving from the air.
These activities continued for about two minutes.
Julian C. and Margaret J. Rolls
Tringa, 31 Fleetwood Close, Neston, Corsham, Wiltshire SN13 9TF
It is possible that this behaviour was not connected with feeding
but rather a form of ‘diving-play’ as suggested by Bernard King for
Smews M. albellus and various surface-feeding ducks (Brit. Birds, 48 :
85) ; on the other hand, the same author’s notes on plunge-diving by
Shags Phalacrocorax aristotelis and Manx Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus
(see above) imply at least a circumstantial connection with large
concentrations of fish Eds
Behaviour of Ringed Plover in defence of nest On 3rd June
1973, on the Suffolk coast, we came across a pair of Ringed Plovers
Charadrius hiaticula nesting very close to Little Terns Sterna albifrons
on a shingle beach. As we approach, the Ringed Plover that was
incubating ran down the beach and went directly to a Little Terns’
nest which had eggs. The terns mobbed the plover to no avail,
the latter standing over their nest in a ‘tilting’ posture, attracting
our attention and possibly inviting us to the nest. On our arrival
there it flew off and was later found sitting contentedly on its own
clutch only two metres from the terns’ eggs. The Little Terns also
settled down to incubate after the plover had returned to its own
nest. This behaviour was repeated when we returned to the site on
10th and 17th June. John and Margaret Smith
Topaz , Sudbury Road, Lavenham, Suffolk
Blue Tit laying and hatching egg in substitute site with no
nest material In May 1972, in the garden of the house where I
then lived in Wandsworth, London, a pair of Blue Tits Parus
caeruleus built a nest and laid eggs in a nestbox, but this was pulled
down by vandals. The day after this incident the birds were investi-
otes
79
iting another, empty, box about five metres from the site of the
st. About a week later, a single egg was discovered in one of the
Dnt corners of this new box, laid on the bare wood with no nest
aterial. (Unfortunately it is not known for certain when it was
:tually laid.) This egg was being incubated by the Blue Tits, it
lly hatched (no nest material being added during incubation),
rd the chick eventually fledged. R. H. Kettle
r Erridge Road, London swig 3JA
This occurrence is remarkable in that a species which normally
cubates a clutch of many eggs in a soft nest incubated a single
i g on the bare nestbox floor, and in the fact that the nestling
rvived in spite of the lack of supporting siblings or eggs, and of
soft concave nest, apparently without developing any severe
formities. Eds
jtrvival of young Long-tailed Tits in exposed nest At the
: d of April 1972, in a low hawthorn bush on the edge of Ringshall
>ppice, Hertfordshire, I found a nest of Long-tailed Tits Aegithalos
udatus completely domed, with six eggs being incubated. By 21st
ay the whole top half of the nest had been removed, suggesting
aat a predator had made an entry. To my surprise, in the remaining
1 If of the nest there were three live young about four or five days
1, which were still thriving four days later, Subsequent evidence
| ingests that they fledged successfully. Robert Morgan
itish Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove , Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR
'.Derek Goodwin suspects that the dome was removed piecemeal
nesting material; Chaffinches Fringilla coelebs and Grey Squirrels
urns carolinensis, at least, are known to have destroyed Long-
led Tits’ nest for this purpose. Eds
■reenfinch settling on the sea The notes by Raymond H. Hogg
d T. Delaney about passerines settling on the sea (Brit. Birds,
' : 169-170) remind me of an observation I made on 20th April
58 at Hemsby, Norfolk. A north-west wind was blowing and
•oughout the day small passerines were flying in from the sea,
lividually and in small groups, and disappearing inland. At about
30 hours I noticed a lone bird approaching low over the water in
tinctly laboured flight. It flopped down on to the water about
le metres from the shore, and floated for some ten seconds ; then,
thout any apparent difficulty, it rose up and flew half-way up the
ich, where I found it crouching inside a hollow log, and was able
identify it as a male Greenfinch Carduelis chloris. It stayed com-
tely passive as I picked it up and carried it further inland, but
8o
Notes
after about ten minutes it seemed to be fully recovered, and,
apparently roused by the call of another Greenfinch, flew off calling.
John E. Sandford
2g Elvaston Way, Tilehurst, Reading RG3 4.LX
Reviews
Birdwatchers’ Year. By Leo Batten, Jim Flegg, Jeremy
Sorensen, Mike J. Wareing, Donald Watson and Malcolm
Wright. T. & A. D. Poyser, Berkhamsted, 1973. 351 pages;
18 photographs; many drawings, maps and figures. £4.60.
I enjoyed reading this book and was glad that the idea of six people
writing about their ornithological year month by month had
succeeded so well. I am not particularly thrilled by books of short
stories and I had approached this collection of the works of six
authors with some coolness. However, Leo Batten’s account of a
year’s natural history at the Brent Reservoir in the heart of London’s
suburbia sets a pattern of a semi-diary form interspersed with an
explanatory dissertation of the natural history background to his
sets of facts. This pattern is followed in Jim Flegg’s account of
Northward Hill, Kent, with great success. Donald Watson’s rather
more lyrical account of his year on the southern Scottish moors,
accompanied by his own scraperboard illustrations, particularly
pleased me. Malcolm Wright’s account of his year on an island,
in this case the Calf of Man, was nostalgic.
Generally speaking, I found this a most useful and informative
book. Those accounts which make less use of the strict diary form
are the most successful, I think, but quite clearly the authors
are naturalists if not ecologists and the book is, in my view, enjoy-
able reading. I also found the illustrations, by Ian Willis and Donald
Watson, most pleasing. Peter Conder
Wildlife Photography. A Field Guide. By Eric Hosking and
John Gooders. Hutchinson, London, 1973. 192 pages; 9 colour
and 32 black-and-white plates; 16 text-figures. £2.95.
This book is designed to meet the increasing demand for a simple
guide to wildlife photography. It is small, light, and quite handy for
taking into the field on photographic excursions. Chapters on
cameras and equipment, safari photography, bird photography and
flash are followed by one on zoo and studio photography, which
covers small mammals, reptiles and amphibians. Cinematography
is considered, and then the ‘inanimate world’, which includes trees,
flowers, lichens, fungi, and— even more curiously — insects. Finally
there is a thought-provoking chapter on ethics, in which a number of
eviews
81
i . lestions are asked but the answers are largely left to the reader,
he publishers’ blurb suggests that photographing wildlife is an out-
tt for the basic need to hunt, and that many photographers have
und that ‘pitting their wits against a dangerous animal or a
i mid bird . . . brings ample excitement and reward’. However, this
only one aspect of the subject. There are still many animals which
unnot yet be photographed in the wild. Illustrations of these are
• rtainly needed, and photographs taken under studio conditions
i ay well show details quite unobtainable in the wild. These studies
ten require a very high degree of skill and patience. Nevertheless,
ost will agree with the authors’ conclusion that ‘it is the responsi-
lity of the photographer to label clearly all photographs taken
i captivity and not to pass them off as wild and free’, An appendix
ves useful lists of equipment for safari and hide-work, a list of rare
rds for which a permit is required before they may be photo-
aphed at the nest, and a short bibliography. There are 16 simple
it clean text diagrams, and eleven blank pages for notes.
The very readable text follows a simple style and should be clear
those with little or no technical knowledge. In such a small book
it e practical details are at times necessarily brief. Perhaps more space
light have been devoted to cameras and equipment, and the
I manimate world’. The illustrations are, of course, excellent, but
ice reproduction of some of the coloured and many of the black-
ud-white plates is disappointing. In addition the monochrome
i uotographs are very small, though in most instances adequate to
■ :monstrate the point intended. However, this book is recommended
rr enthusiastic but ignorant amateurs, especially the part dealing
i th advance planning of photographic expeditions. In fact, such
idy before the safari might easily save them many disappoint-
ments, much time and money. As would be expected from the
nthors, there are many valuable hints on every page, the fruits of
rng experience. Geoffrey Beven
L.SO RECEIVED
1 '.tic Life of Birds and Mammals. By L. Irving. Springer- Yerlag, Berlin, Heidelberg
and New York, 1973. DM 44.00 or $14.00.
the Turn of the Tide. By Richard Perry. Revised edition. Croom Helm, London,
■973- £3-5°-
t trel Klee; The Heron Garth; Krark. All by Kenneth Richmond. Barn- Shurlock,
Winchester, 1973 (reprinted). £1.50 each.
I f iulation Ecology of the Mallard. I. A review of previous studies and the distribution and
nigration from breeding areas. By David R. Anderson and Charles J. Hennv.
! 1 3ureau of Sport, Fisheries and Wildlife, Washington, 1972. $1.50.
1 se nach Runde. By Fritz Steiniger. Kilda-Verlag, Greven, 1972. DM19.80.
e Look-it-up Book of Birds. By Elizabeth S. Austin and Oliver L. Austin. Collins,
j [Glasgow, 1973. £1.75.
e Technique of Bird Photography. By John Warham. Third (revised) edition.
1 1 Focal Press, London and New York, 1973. £3.00.
Letters
Wader nesting associations A number of times in the past I have
found individual pairs of Lapwings Vanellus vanellus and Redshanks
Tringa totanus nesting within a few metres of each other, and recently
Lapwings and Snipe Gallinago gallinago within about four metres,
all in circumstances showing no scarcity whatever of equally suit-
able sites all around. Apart from one vague statement in The
Handbook (4: 325) under Redshank — ‘Associates freely with other
waders’ — which seems unlikely to have been intended to include
nesting associations, I have found no mention of this habit in the
literature. The explanation could be that either or both participants
benefit by their neighbour’s keeping watch for approaching preda-
tors or from their neighbour’s attacks on predators, since normally
Lapwings attack intruders, Redshanks only clamour in alarm, and
Snipe do neither. A. L. W. Mayo
Ruffold House, Coly Road, Colyton, Devon ex 13 6qd
I have found Redshanks nesting close to Lapwings in several
counties of Britain, and James Ferguson-Lees and I mentioned this
association on page 230 of A Field Guide to Birds'1 Nests (1972). In my
experience the Lapwing rises first and obviously, while the Redshank
slips off its nest quietly. Since most Lapwings nest rather earlier than
Redshanks, there would, as Mr Mayo suggests, be added benefit to
the still-incubating Redshanks when their neighbours with small
young mob and distract the potential predator. I have also found
Snipe nesting fairly close to Lapwings, but not as commonly as Red-
shanks. Another association we noted in our books, on page 198, is
between Ringed Plovers Charadrius hiaticula and Little Terns Sterna
albifrons (see also the note on page 78 in this issue) . The reasons for
waders, ducks and grebes nesting in colonies of gulls and terns were
discussed in 1957 by Jukka Koskimies in Ornis Fennica, 34: 1-6; see
also Wildfowl, 19: 160; 20: 154; and 21 : 147 for the greater success
of ducks nesting close to the huge colony of Black-headed Gulls
Larus ridibundus on St Serf’s Island, Loch Leven, Kinross-shire, as
against those nesting elsewhere on the island. It would be interesting
to know whether the Nest Record Scheme of the British Trust for
Ornithology, for example, provides any statistical evidence that
Redshanks nesting near Lapwings have a better hatching success
than others. Bruce Campbell
Hordley, Woodstock, Oxford 0x7 iep
82
'''Jews and comment Robert Hudson
Verns in trouble It has long been clear that the welfare of terns in Britain and
i reland is largely dependent on the availability of undisturbed breeding sites
i . long low-lying coasts, which are becoming increasingly frequented by people,
rendering necessary the provision of protected reserves. The latest reports to the
j eabird Group relate to the Sandwich Tern along the east coast of Scotland,
i here there used to be strong colonies in the Firth of Forth, in Aberdeenshire and
t the Moray Firth area. At the time of Operation Seafarer (1969) there were
| ,400 pairs there, about 10% of the north-west European total. It seems that the
nirds started to desert the Moray Firth in 1971, apparently due mainly to incrcas-
, ig disturbance on the beaches, one of which is a military range and another an
il platform construction site. They moved to the Sands of Forvie in Aberdeen-
• tire, where they were disturbed by Foxes, and in 1973 the bulk of the population
i ppears to have moved south to Northumberland and Norfolk (whence they are
I Iso reported to have been disturbed and to have moved elsewhere). The number
1! reeding along the east coast of Scotland has fallen to about 400 pairs. Terns are
1 ow added to the list of birds for which the Seabird Group, in conjunction with
ic Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, will carry out regular breeding
: 1 -nsuses, gathering information showing the necessity for protection of breeding
t t tes. (Taken, with permission, from the Seabird Group Circular no. 14).
ilature Conservancy Council appointments The Nature Conservancy
| louncil, set up by Parliament in 1973 as an independent body, but with reduced
j responsibilities, to replace the old Nature Conservancy, has announced some
pppointments of committee chairmen and senior staff. The chairmen of the Statu-
) nry Advisory Committees are to be A. E. Smith, obe, for England, H. A. Maxwell,
be, for Scotland, and Dr D. A. Bassett for Wales; while Professor A. D. Bradshaw
I 1 to be Chairman of its Advisory Committee on Science. On the staff side, Dr
derek Ratcliffe, who during 1970-73 was Acting Deputy Director (Scientific) of
j !ie old Nature Conservancy, fills the new senior post of Chief Scientist; while Ian
Vrestt, who joined the Conservancy in 1956, becomes Deputy Director. We wish
tern well in this difficult transitionary period.
"few Year Honours This time there was but one ornithologically familar name
1 the New Year Honours list, and we offer our congratulations to H. G. Hurrell
r.n his award of mbe for services to the environment. Mr Hurrell’s name is closely
associated with Devon; he had a long spell on the editorial committee of the
1 >evon Bird Report, and since its inception in i960 has been a driving force in the
devon Trust for Nature Conservation. He has been a member of the British
Ornithologists’ Union since 1927, is the author of various papers, and during
947-50 organised one of the early co-operative enquiries of the British Trust for
Jrnithology, on summer movements of Swifts (Brit. Birds, 44: 146-152).
| *ack to the wild In December the Pheasant Trust, of Great Witchingham in
■ forfolk, returned another consignment of rare Asiatic pheasants to their home-
ind for an attempt at restocking, this time with 24 Cheer Pheasants Catreus
■allichii. This species is native to the western Himalayas (north-west Pakistan to
I 1 fepal), where it has declined alarmingly, due to excessive hunting, to the point
f having its own page in the Red Book-, it is extremely sedentary and family parties
;main for several months in the same locality, even when disturbed by shooting,
'his consignment from Norfolk is being taken to the Himachal Pradesh province
f northern India where, following a period of acclimatisation, they will be released
ito a wildlife reserve.
83
News and comment
84
An alternative fuel According to a report in the Council of Europe Newsletter
(no. 10, 1973), it is planned to construct a power plant near Drama in northern
Greece, which will be fuelled with peat. It is being forecast that major wetlands
will result from the large-scale excavation of the peat, and become suitable nesting
and resting sites for waterfowl.
Obituary It is with regret that we record the death of Dr M. C. Radford, which
occurred in Oxford on 8th December 1973. An amateur ornithologist par excellence,
Mary Radford had been a member of the Oxford Ornithological Society for nearly
50 years, and gave her most vigorous service at an age when most people would
think of easing up. She edited the Society’s annual bird report from 1 959 to 1 962,
and served as President from 1963 to 1966 and Vice-President thereafter. Her book
The Birds of Berkshire and Oxfordshire (1966) is the definitive avifauna of those
counties. Her other significant contributions to ornithology are the series of ana-
lyses of gull and tern ringing recoveries published in Bird Study (7: 81-93, 8: 174-
184, 9: 42-55); and her assistance, in literature searching, to her great friend Reg
Moreau after he had left Oxford, which was acknowledged in his posthumous
book, The Palaear die- African Bird Migration Systems (1972). In recent years Mary
Radford had borne, with astonishing fortitude, a series of disabilities and mis-
fortunes, especially the loss of sight in one eye after a motor accident. On 27th
November last she attended Professor W. H. Thorpe’s Tucker Lecture in Oxford;
on 4th December she entered the Churchill Hospital for a short spell of observation
and she died peacefully four days later. (Contributed by Dr Bruce Campbell.)
New BTO publication The British Trust for Ornithology has recently published
a 44-page booklet entitled Early and Late Dates for Summer Migrants. Series of such
dates (and their localities) in The Handbook proved popular with general readers,
and this new booklet gives updated and extended lists of these. Fifty species are
treated, omitting those for which a few birds overwinter more or less regularly in
Britain and Ireland, such as Quail, Common Sandpiper, Blackcap and Chiffchaff.
For each are given the 15 latest records (to 31st December) and the 15 earliest
(from 1st February), with any January occurrences listed separately; these series
are long enough for the extremes to be seen in some sort of perspective. The oppor-
tunity was taken to verify the dates quoted in The Handbook ; several errors were
uncovered thereby, of which the most intriguing concerned reputed early Common
and Little Terns in March 1850, though in the original report ( Zoologist 1850:
2854) ‘March’ actually referred to the Cambridgeshire locality of that name! A
preliminary section to the booklet, under the heading ‘Long-term trends’, gives
reasons for supposing that the increased incidence of very early and late records
in the last 30 years is real, and not solely due to the increased scale of bird watching;
it does seem that the period of climatic amelioration we have experienced has
induced some individual birds to delay their departures, or to arrive earlier in
spring. This booklet, BTO Field Guide no. 15, is available from the BTO, Beech
Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR, at 3op, post free.
Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds
Request for information
Influx of Rough-legged Buzzards The number of Rough-legged Buzzards Buteo
lagopus in Britain this winter seems to be exceptional. The last influx of com-
parable size occurred in autumn and winter 1966/67 and this was described by
R. E. Scott in Brit. Birds, 61 : 449-455. A paper on the present influx is envisaged,
and we appeal for all records from autumn 1973 to spring 1974 to be sent to K. R.
Anderson, Wymondham College, Norfolk.
Notice
esearch on Steller’s Albatross A graduate in biology or zoology with an
terest in seabirds is required to undertake studies of Steller’s Albatross Diomedea
! batrus on an uninhabited volcanic island in the north-west Pacific Ocean. The
i erson selected would be responsible for organising and leading an expedition of
» /o or three people who would be isolated for a period of almost one year. There
ould be an opportunity to write up the research for a higher degree. Interested
| r arsons with appropriate experience should write to Dr W. L. N. Tickell, Depart-
ment of Zoology, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda.
decent reports — November D. A. Christie
hese are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
here was a mild start to November as a series of Atlantic depressions crossed
I ritain, winds being generally light. From about the middle of the month, how-
1 i'/er, anticyclonic conditions produced stronger winds with colder weather from
ie north, and from 25th-26th a week of exceptionally cold weather set in during
hich many of the larger lakes and reservoirs became frozen over.
: . ABIRDS, SKUAS AND AUKS
t each’s Petrels Oceanodroma leucorhoa were reported in small numbers mainly
; om Irish Sea coasts, especially during the gales of mid-month; there was also
ie strange sight of one flying over the Serpentine in Hyde Park on 1 7th and one
i ias in the Swale estuary (Kent) on 18th. Other tubenoses were extremely scarce
at included a Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophrys flying north off
1 ‘ iaton Sluice (Northumberland) on 13th and a Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus
! T Portstewart (Co. Antrim) on 24th.
Two Pomarine Skuas Stercorarius pomarinus were seen at Minsmere (Suffolk)
\ in 1st, one moved south off Bamburgh (Northumberland) on 3rd and three at
1 < ’iaton Sluice on 1 1 th, and as many as five were identified off Weybourne (Norfolk)
• 1 26th. Arctic Skuas S. parasiticus were also very scarce — four seen in Northum-
I <erland, and singles in Suffolk and Kent, while following coastal gales one
| ; opeared at Blithficld Reservoir (Staffordshire) on 25th. The only report of a
iittle Auk Plautus alle concerned one between Fair Isle and Sumburgh (Shetland)
I I 9th-
ERONS, SPOONBILL AND WILDFOWL
nmature Night Herons Nycticorax nycticorax were present in Lincolnshire at
aithby on 11th and at Boston from 13th to 19th, and at Eye Brook Reservoir
..eicestershire/Rudand) from 1 7th to 26th. The appearance in Britain of imma-
I ires of this species in late autumn has become a regular feature of recent years:
has yet to be explained and their origin established, though there must be a
i rong suspicion, on meteorological and other grounds, that these are merely
ill-winged young raised in a free-flying colony such as the one at Edinburgh Zoo
hey have often been very tame and have sometimes stayed at the same locality
■r several months) . A sub-adult Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia remained at Sand-
1 ich Bay (Kent) throughout the month and until 8th December, while earlier,
1 1 3rd November, one had been seen on the River Tavy (Devon). Unusual num-
‘ ' ers of Long-tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalis were reported on fresh water — nine in
! ie Tyneside area and singles inland at Drax (Yorkshire), Chasewater and West-
' ort Lake (Staffordshire^, Holme Pierrepont/Colwick (Nottinghamshire), Tring
85
86
Recent reports — November
Reservoirs (Hertfordshire) and Bough Beech Reservoir (Kent) ; coastal flocks
were no higher than normal, though 18 were at Fingringhoe Wick (Essex) in mid-
month. An unusual gathering was of ioo Velvet Scoters Melanilla fusca off Ross
(Northumberland) on various dates after 4th, while 26 Eiders Somateria mollissima
flying west low over Silwood Park (Berkshire) on 30th were also very unexpected.
Drake King Eiders S. spectabilis were seen on Loch Fleet (Sutherland) from 17th
to 19th and in the Irvine estuary (Ayrshire) throughout the month. A small
number of Smews Mergus albellus came in during November, the first a female at
Hoveringham (Nottinghamshire) on 3rd which stayed until 26th; this was followed
by one in the Leigh area (Lancashire) from 6th to 25th, a drake at Cheddar
Reservoir (Somerset) from 10th to the year’s end, with two birds there on 18th,
one at Welbeck (Nottinghamshire) on 18th and one at Colt Crag and Hallington
Reservoirs (Northumberland) on 25th.
Exceptional numbers of dark-bellied Brent Geese Branta b. bernicla were
present at Foulness (Essex) — over 16,000 on 1 ith, including about 50% juveniles;
on 1 8th estimates were made of 2,000 in Langstone Harbour (Hampshire) and
1,500 in neighbouring Chichester Harbour (Hampshire/Sussex); elsewhere 400
were at East Swale and 600 in the Exe estuary (Devon) by the end of the month. A
Bean Goose Anser fabalis was at Cley (Norfolk) on 24th, and 24 had returned to
the Yare Valley (also Norfolk) by 1 7th, with up to 90 there by the end of the month.
At Lough Beg (Cos. Antrim/Londonderry) there were 155 Whooper Swans
Cygnus cygnus on 14th, and 82 were on Lough Foyle (Co. Londonderry) on the same
date; 220 were counted at Rattray (Aberdeenshire) on 5th and in Northumberland
there were 163 at Lindisfarne on 10th, 1 10 at Holywell by 25th and 106 on Grindon
Lough on 27th.
RAPTORS, WADERS, GULLS AND TERNS
After the October influx of Rough-legged Buzzards Buteo lagopus ( Brit . Birds,
67 : 35), there were further reports from three new east coast localities in November.
Up to five were present all month at Winterton (Norfolk), and at least six in the
Walberswick/Minsmere area of Suffolk. Surprisingly, inland records came only
from Hampshire, a total of three or four birds, but no doubt other sightings have
not been reported to us. The last Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosus at Minsmere
were a pair during the first week and a juvenile on 26th and 27th. An immature
Marsh Hawk C. cyaneus hudsonius at Saltfleetby (Lincolnshire) from 18th to 30th
constitutes only the second report of this American race of the Hen Harrier since
the one in Norfolk from October 1957 to April 1958 (see Brit. Birds, 64: 537-542).
There were three sightings of male Lesser Kestrels Falco naumanni in the first
week, at Chasewater and at Steyning (Sussex) on 4th and in the Vale of Neath
(Glamorgan) on 7th. These would be the 15th, 16th and 17th ever, and make six
records in the last six years.
Waders included three Palearctic rarities. A Sociable Plover Vanellus gregarius
was present for three days during the first week along the Military Road (Isle of
Wight), the 13th for Britain and Ireland if accepted, nine of the previous twelve
having occurred in August-December. On 1 1 th a Great Snipe Gallinago media
was reported at Sandwich Bay; and a Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus found in
the Plym estuary (Devon) on 17th was still being watched in February 1974, the
tenth British and Irish record. Nearctic vagrants consisted of just two Pectoral
Sandpipers Caldris melanotos at Chew Valley Lake (Somerset) until nth and a
White-rumped Sandpiper C. fuscicollis at Grutness (Shetland) from 7th to 1 ith,
though it is worth mentioning that a Western Sandpiper C. mauri was reported in
the Algarve in Portugal during the week of I7th-24th, in an autumn which has
aroused considerable interest in vagrant stints.
A heavy arrival of Woodcocks Scolopax rusticola was evident on the Calf of
Man on 1st when more than 20 were counted, just one day after the influx at
cent reports — November 87
urn (Yorkshire) (Brit. Birds, 67: 37). Good numbers of Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes
limus were present, including 15 at Pennington Flashes (Lancashire) on 1st,
ile two days later a similar number arrived at Blaydon Pond (Co. Durham),
ere were up to 40 Spotted Redshanks Tringa erythropus at Arne (Dorset)
• 'ing the month and 20 at Stoke (Kent) on 1 ith, while Greenshanks T. nebularia
: nbcred 20 at Kingsnorth, near Hoo (Kent), on 10th and more than 70 at Lough
yle on 1 8th. Late migrants included one to two Whimbrels Numenius phaeopus
the Calf of Man up to 24th and single Wood Sandpipers T. glareola at
! 1 enborough (Nottinghamshire) on 20th and at Shotton (Flintshire) until 23rd.
gle Curlew Sandpipers C.ferruginea were at Vazon (Guernsey) on 4th, Sowley
rsh (Plampshire) on 10th, Clifle (Kent) on 14th and Pecqueries Bay (Guernsey)
l the Plym estuary on 18th. Little Stints C. minuta were reported from eleven
, ces, about 30 individuals in all with a maximum of at least eight at Dibden
y / (Hampshire) on 3rd, when there was also a Temminck’s C. temminckii there.
, o Grey Phalaropes Phalaropus fulicarius stayed at Cley from 1st to 6th and
>ther was at Blackpill (Glamorgan) on 17th, when a flock of seven Avocets
tirvirostra avosetta was seen at Steart (Somerset). A late Stone Curlew Burhinus
mraumus was reported also at Steart on 4th.
| Reports of Glaucous Gulls Larus hyperboreus south of the Scottish border
luded three together at Wallsend Swallow (Northumberland) found roosting on
(laying field on 14th, while on Fair Isle, where the species was present on
ny days, the maximum was seven on 25th. Single immature Iceland Gulls L.
1 tcoides appeared at Holywell on 4th and (flying west) at Mansfield Reservoir
ittinghamshire) on 23rd. Two Mediterranean Gulls L. melanocephalus were
orted at Blackpill at least into March 1974. Single Black Terns Chlidonias rtiger
1 t 'c seen at Hickiing Broad (Norfolk) on 1st and at four places in Hampshire
l Somerset up to 1 ith. An adult Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis was present
h a juvenile at Graveney (Kent) on 1st, a Common Tern S. hirundo was still
..ydd (Kent) on 3rd, and very late Common or Arctic Terns .S’. paradisaea were
i i-ed singly in Hampshire in Portsmouth Harbour on 11th and in the Hamble
| *er on 30th. The only rare tern reported was a Gull-billed Gelochelidon nilotira
NVlinsmere Haven on 10th.
\R-PASSERINES AND PASSERINES
1 ong the winter visitors, Shore Larks Eremophila alpestris were reported in
i ier low numbers from 13 sites: on the east coast up to 30 were present at
iraltar Point (Lincolnshire) and Minsmere, six were at both Bamburgh and
ble (Northumberland) on 3rd, and five at Reculver (Kent) on 14th; in the
:t one was on Bardsey (Caernarvonshire) on 7th, a second at Dawlish Warren
. -von) from 10th to 13th, and a third at Marshside, Southport (Lancashire)
12th. A Shore Lark at Pulias (Guernsey) from 1 ith to 19th was the first record
rr for that island; but perhaps the most unusual report of this species was
1 wo in the grounds of a school in Northampton on 6th and 7th, a county first.
: largest east coast flocks of Twites Acanthis fiavirostris were in Kent, 500 near
! ersham on 1 1 th and 300 at Sandwich Bay on 30th ; in the west there were 80 on
I Calf of Man by the latter date. Up to 24 Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis
e at Minsmere during November and up to 40 stayed in the Ross/Bamburgh
.u, while 26 at Sandwich Bay on 30th was the maximum in the south-east; there
e only four reports from the west, 15 at Southport on 25th being the most
: ! 'ther. Guernsey records came from Fort Hommet (three on 4th) and Pulias
: from 1 7th to 21st) ; and we heard of five singles inland in England, at Winnall
I 1 .mpshire) on 3rd, Fulmer (Buckinghamshire) from 8th November to 18th
ember, Attenborough on 1 ith, Pitsford Reservoir (Northamptonshire) on 18th,
Langley (Kent) from 18th to 21st. Up to 15 Lapland Buntings Calcarius
I oniens were noted at Beal (Northumberland) on 3rd and 4th, but the only other
88
Recent reports — November
reports of this scarce and elusive passage migrant and winter visitor were of
singles at Southport on 2nd, at Gibraltar Point on nth, at Nafferton (Northum-
berland) on 22nd and on the Calf of Man on 23rd, though there were doubtless
more than this. The only large flock of Bramblings Fringilla montifringilla
reported to us in November was one of 500 or more in Black Park (Buckingham-
shire) on 20th. Great Grey Shrikes Lanius excubitor appeared to be more wide-
spread than usual in November, and at Winterton there were up to three through-
out the month. Waxwings Bombycilla garrulus were reported from eleven places,
singletons in six cases; the most together were four between Chapel and Chinley
(Derbyshire) on 29th. Lastly, up to 23 Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus were
counted on the Dee marshes (Cheshire) early in the month.
Passage migrants and late summer visitors were few and far between. ‘Northern’
Chiffchaffs Phylloscopus collybita were recorded at Hauxley (Northumberland)
on 3rd and 4th, on Fair Isle up to 9th, and on the Calf of Man on 30th (showing
the characters of the race abietinus). A fall of 60 Phylloscopus warblers on Cape
Clear Island (Co. Cork) in the first week consisted mostly of Chiffchaffs but
included one Willow Warbler P. trochilus, one Yellow-browed P. inornatus,
and a possible Greenish P. trochiloides. A Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus was at
Budle Bay (Northumberland) on 3rd, while one on Fair Isle on 14th was very
late so far north. At the latter locality the last Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe was on
1 1 th and the last Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla on 1 3th. Other tardy migrants included
a Whinchat Saxicola rubetra at Graveney on 4th, a very late Swift Apus apus near
Leigh on 6th, a Hoopoe Upupa epops in Hyde Park on 6th or 7th, a White Wagtail
Motacilla a. alba at Sevenoaks (Kent) on nth, a Whitethroat Sylvia communis
at Pitsford Reservoir on 18th, and a Yellow Wagtail M. Jlava at New Hythe
(Kent) on 24th with another at Old Slade (Buckinghamshire) on 29th.
Finally, a number of vagrants were reported: a Short-toed Lark Calandrella
cinerea and a Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris, both at Winterton on 3rd; a Nut-
cracker Nucifraga caryocatactes at Minsmere on 4th; an Olive-backed Pipit
A. hodgsoni at Staines Reservoir (Middlesex) on 7th, only the fifth ever for Britain
and Ireland if accepted; a Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti at Minsmere on 1 8th;
an immature female Lesser Grey Shrike L. minor found dying at Haslemere
(Surrey), also on 1 8th ; and a Serin Serinus serinus at Arminghall (Norfolk) on 29th.
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70 Palearctic birds in East Africa J. F. Reynolds Plates 5-12
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77 Aerial plunge-diving by Shags and Manx Shearwaters Bernard King
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nations. A holiday that can open
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11
! alume 67 Number 3 March 1974
he migration of the Gannet:
reassessment of British and Irish ringing data
.. Lands borough Thomson
! ie British and Irish ringing results for the Gannet Sula bassana
•re analysed by the writer when there were just over 200 recovery
icords (Thomson 1939) ; for the present study more than eight times
a at number were available. The main conclusions of the earlier
per have been confirmed and amplified; some comments have
en rendered obsolete, and various new points have emerged.
An unscripted preview of these findings was given to the British
nithologists’ Union Conference at Reykjavik, Iceland, on nth
ne 1972 (summarised in Thomson 1972), and again to a meeting
the British Ornithologists’ Club in London on 19th September
72. Reference is made on pages 97 and 100 to two other papers
aling in more detail with particular sections of the data. Many of
r; individual records have been published in the annual reports
d recovery lists of the national ringing scheme (Witherby;
ach; Thomson; Spencer).
OPE AND SOURCES OF RECOVERY DATA
is study relates exclusively to the eastern Atlantic population of
: Gannet ; and the records are derived solely from recoveries of
ds ringed at breeding colonies round the coasts of Great Britain
d Ireland. A smaller part of the population breeds off Iceland, in
• Faeroe Islands and at a few minor stations elsewhere, but little
ging has been done in these places and the few published records
i nothing significant to the picture. Even in the British Isles, the
gest colony of all — that on St Kilda in the Outer Hebrides — has
itributed nothing, owing to its inaccessibility to ringers.
89
go Migration of the Garnet
Most of the birds recovered had been ringed on one or other of
three offshore islands: the Bass Rock (East Lothian), in the Firth
of Forth on the east coast of Scotland (56°04'N, 2°38'W); Ailsa
Craig (Ayrshire), in the Firth of Clyde on the west coast of Scotland
(55°23'N, 5°o7'W) ; and Grassholm (Pembrokeshire), in the Irish
Sea off south-west Wales (5i°44'N, 5°2g'W). Other gannetries off
the coasts of Scotland and Ireland have yielded fewer recoveries.
The number of recoveries included in the analysis is 1,761, after
discarding those considered to be non-viable owing to uncertainty
in the particulars or because the birds had perished without ever
having flown. These records resulted from the ringing of 32,681
Gannets, mostly as nestlings ( pulli ), up to and including 1968, and
recoveries therefrom up to the end of 1971: the yield was thus
almost 5.4%. The exclusion of birds ringed since 1968 was deliberate,
so that all the individuals recovered would have been ‘at risk’ for at
least 3! years — a point of importance, since a comparison of results
for birds of different ages was a principal objective of the analysis.
Table 1. Age at recovery of 1,600 Gannets Sula bassana ringed as nestlings
Year of life from 1st May
Number recovered
1st
867
2nd
255
3rd
165
4th
105
5th
69
6th
44
7th
42
8th
27
—
9th
9
Year of life from 1st May
10th
nth
1 2 th
13th
14th
15th
1 6th
17th
1 8 th
Number recovered
9
2
3
2
—
—
—
I
— ij X
Table 2. Years from ringing to recovery of 161 Gannets Sula bassana ringed as
adults at unknown age
The four birds recovered twice are counted at the older age
Year from 1st May 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th
Number recovered 31 34 21 15 10 16 12 7 6
10th nth 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th
3 _ - - —I
[Note to tables 1 and 2 : With this species, heavy wear and corrosion occur when aluminum 1 ■
rings are used. These were gradually replaced by more resistant monel rings during th<
late 1950’s (say 1957, on average). This change might conceivably have had an effect or !
the apparent longevity of ringed birds ; and a breakdown of the figures has in fact shown ar
increased proportion of recoveries during 1957-63, as compared with 1909-56, amonj
birds that had carried their rings for six years or more. Further analysis, however, sug
gests that this is a reflection of the improvement in the general recovery rate to whicl
reference is made on page 100, an improvement already substantial during 1946-56, befori 'jj(
monel rings were introduced. The three oldest birds in table 1 , and the one in table 2 witl
the longest life after ringing, all carried aluminium rings.]
Year from 1st May
Number recovered
91
Migration of the Gannet
\AGE AT RECOVERY
As in my earlier paper, years of life have been reckoned from ist
May. This means that there can be no recoveries during the first
two to three months of the notional first year of life, before the
young fledge. Taking the life-span as a whole, however, the chosen
date seems to provide a reasonable approximation to the start of
the main breeding season (though many of the adults are at their
stations much earlier, and laying in the middle of March has been
recorded) . On this basis, table i shows the recoveries of birds ringed
as nestlings in each year of life. Table 2 shows the recoveries of birds
ringed as adults in each year numbered from the year of ringing at
an indeterminate age.
Table i shows a familiar picture of the ‘law of diminishing returns’,
with a particularly heavy mortality in the first year. After the tenth
year the recoveries fall to a residual level, tailing off to a solitary
record in the seventeenth year. The figures in table 2 are too small
for close analysis, but there is little correspondence with the pattern
of table i or of such part as might be considered to be equivalent;
age at ringing is an imponderable factor, and it may conceivably be
subject to some kind of bias. It is accordingly necessary, in other
forms of analysis, to be cautious about lumping birds ringed as
adults with those ringed as pulli and recovered in or after the fifth
year of life.
GEOGRAPHICAL INCIDENCE OF RECOVERIES
Again as in Thomson (1939), four arbitrary zones are distinguished
as a basis for the geographical analysis of the recovery records
(see also fig. 1) :
*(N) Northern waters: Atlantic Ocean north of the latitude of Ushant (48°28'N) ;
dso the Norwegian Sea, North Sea, Baltic Sea and approaches, English Channel
i ind Irish Sea. The northernmost record is from latitude c. 64°N; the northern
limit of the breeding range of the British population is latitude 6o°5o'N (Her-
maness, Unst, Shetland)
VW) West European waters: Atlantic Ocean from the latitude of Ushant to
:hat of Punta Alminia on the south side of the Strait of Gibraltar (35°54,N) ; also
:he whole of the Mediterranean Sea
A) North-west African waters : Atlantic Ocean from the Strait of Gibraltar
o the Tropic of Cancer (23°27'N)
T) Tropical waters: Atlantic Ocean from the Tropic of Cancer southwards.
The southernmost recovery is from latitude 1 i°52'N (Portuguese Guinea)
These four zones are approximately the same width — a little over 12°
>f latitude. That is taking the limit of the Northern zone as coinci-
dent with the limit of the breeding range of the population under
itudy; there is a further belt of about 40 (including the breeding
92
Migration of the Garnet
Fig. i. The four zones used as a basis
for the geographical analysis of the
recovery records of the Gannet Sula
bassana (defined in detail on page
91). The interrupted line marks the
latitudinal limit of the breeding area
of the British and Irish population *
'
>
I
range of the more northerly populations) from which come a mere
dozen of the records assigned to this zone.
Zone n comprises the home waters of the British population;
recoveries within it give no evidence of more than off-season dis-
persal. Zones w, a and T are successively more distant areas to
which migration takes place. The incidence of the recoveries by
zones, and by season and age, is shown in table 3.
From table 3a it is seen that, in the first year of life, recoveries in
zone n (mostly local at first) begin in July, become more numerous
in August, and reach a maximum in September and October;
after that they fall away markedly, and the number remains low
until July of the following year. In zone w they begin in August,
reach a maximum in October and thereafter decrease. In zone a
they begin in October and reach a maximum in November;
in zone t there is only an isolated record for October and the
maximum falls in December. One concludes that, although a few
first-year birds remain in Northern waters throughout the winter,
most of them move southwards rather quickly into West European
waters, with a strong tendency to pass further south from November
onwards.
From table 3b it is seen that in the second year of life a few birds
remain through the summer in the southern zones t and a, and
more in zone w; but that there is a definite build-up in the numbers
in zone n from July onwards. One concludes that there is a return
migration at about the age of one year, but that it is far from com-
plete. The 25 second-year birds recovered in Northern waters in
li
»
I
ft
ft
£
a
tfK
Migration of the Gannet
93
fable 3. Distribution by month and zone of recoveries of Gannets Sula bassana
s 3a*3e refer to birds ringed as nestlings. The zone n total in table 3f includes four adults
recovered twice, counted at the older age
Zone May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr totals
N
8
67
143
132
36
I I
6
2
2
2
409
1 »
W
-
9
83
155
83
18
4
4
1 1
I
348
/ s red in
A
-
-
-
13
25
12
9
8
I
1
69
year
life
T
—
—
—
I
7
13
I 1
7
I
1
4i
TOTALS
8
76
226
301
131
54
30
21
15
5
867
N 1
» > W 1
I red in A 2
t i iyear T 2
'■if'
TOTALS 6
4 25 22 15
812 ti 6
-21 I
2-2
14 39 36 22
24 l6 742
9 n l5 II 5
34-12
1 2 1
36 37 23 18 10
1
7
1
9
1 122
2 104
2 19
- 10
5 255
N 5
: \V 8
t -red in A 1
' 'year T —
life
TOTALS 14
20 It 12 5
2ii 3
22 13 14 8
II 7 5 4 5
75 6 12 8
22-
18 12 13 18 13
3 6 94
3 6 62
2-8
8 12 165
N 8 10 7 12
1 W 1 - _ 2
l t red in A - - - -
I i year T - -
* life
TOTALS 9 IO 7 14
6 12 3 243
I 5 227
- - - - I I
2 8
3 3
77
26
2
7 12 8 4 7 11 5 11 105
N 17 20 37 18
» W 3 - 2 -
1 ■ red in A — - — —
I • ear of T - - - -
■ d over
TOTALS 20 20 39 l8
6 I I
3
5
3
3 II 1°
536
— I —
— I -
10 24
4 2
172
31
3
2
6 15 8 8 16 16 15 27 208
td as
dts
N 18 16 16 18
W 2 1 r -
A - - -
T - - -
6 5 5 9 11
-2-36
6 13 17 140
2 1 1 19
1 - - 2
TOTALS 20 17 17 l8
67 5 12 l8 9 14 l8 l6l
94
Migration of the Garnet
July show little tendency to return at this time to their native
colonies ; an analysis of the i g recoveries of Bass Rock birds shows
eight from the east coast of Great Britain (including only two ‘local’),
three from the English Channel, one from Pembrokeshire (near
Grassholm), and seven from continental coasts of the North Sea
(from Norway to the Netherlands).
Table 3c shows that in the third year of life there are again many
birds remaining in zone n throughout the year, but with a falling-off
after October. This is reflected in some increase in zone w from that
month, with a maximum in January. Records from zone a are few,
and the only record from zone t is for August.
Table 3d shows a similar tendency in the fourth year of life, with
records from zone a negligible, and none from zone T.
The numbers then become too small for consideration by separate
years, and table 3e accordingly consolidates the recoveries in the
fifth year of life and over. The same trend appears to continue; and the
increase in zone n in the summer months may be ascribed to
recoveries of now mature adults at their breeding stations. The two
birds in zone t, both in the sixth year of life, were found in Senegal
in January (a few kilometres south of Cape Verde, I4°43'N) and
April (estuary of River Casamance, i2°34'N); the latter had been
‘controlled’ at its native Bass Rock in the preceding summer and
was a colour-ringed male that had definitely bred there at least
once (Dr J. B. Nelson in litt.).
Table 3f shows a somewhat similar picture for birds ringed as adults :
there are two winter records from zone a, and no records from
zone t.
COMPARISON BY AGES
There is, naturally, a continuous decrease in the absolute numbers
of survivors in successive years of life ; to compare one year of age
with another it is necessary, therefore, to deal in percentages.
Winter is taken, in accordance with the indication of the records, as
comprising the months from November to February inclusive; for
each year of life the numbers of recoveries in the respective zones are
then expressed as percentages of the total number of winter
recoveries in that age-year. The results are set out in table 4 and
fig- 2.
Reading across the table, it is evident that:
(1) the proportion of birds remaining in Northern waters (zone n)
in winter is markedly lowest in the first year of life, higher and
increasing during the next three years, and highest in older birds;
(2) the proportion wintering in West European waters (zone w) is
lower in the first year of life than in the next three years, during
which it remains roughly constant and thereafter falls;
-
\Migration of the Garnet
(3) proportion in the two southern zones is markedly higher
in the first year of life than in the second, and somewhat higher in
the second year than subsequently.
Table 4. Age distribution of winter recoveries of Gannets
Sula bassana, expressed as percentages of annual totals
Winter is taken from November to February inclusive. The same
data are shown graphically in fig. 2
YEAR OF
LIFE
Ringed as
Zone
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
51b +
adults
N
23
31
38
40
62
76
W
40
57
53
54
33
21
A
22
8
9
6
3
3
T
>5
4
—
—
2
N + W
63
88
9i
94
95
97
A + T
37
12
9
6
5
3
W+A + T
77
69
62
60
38
24
First year Second year Third year
NN
,W
r'A
IT
m
I
Fourth year Fifth and over Ringed as adults
'N ['' ^ —
w
T
Fig. 2. Age distribution of winter recoveries of Gannets Sula bassana (November
° February inclusive), expressed as percentages of annual totals (see table 4)
96 Migration of the Garnet
Reading the columns vertically, one may deduce that:
(1) in the first year of life the majority of the birds migrate, and
many reach the southern zones;
(2) in the second, third and fourth years of life, more remain in
zone n in winter, but there is still a substantial number in zone w and
some are recorded further south, though the proportion in the
Tropics is negligible after the second winter (the exceptional
recovery of a sixth-year bird in Senegal in April, mentioned above,
is outside the date limits of the table) ;
(3) in older birds, the tendency to winter in zone n is greater, and
the tendency to migrate further than zone w is slight.
At the bottom of table 4 the figures for adjacent zones are
summed in order to show certain points at a glance. The totals for
zones n and w are the proportions of birds that winter either in or
near home waters, performing at most the short migration to West
European waters. The totals for zones a and t represent those that
perform a long migration (or that have performed such a migration
and have remained in the south through the breeding season). The
final line gives the total percentages of all birds found in winter
beyond home waters; these may be compared with the figures in
the first line.
DISCUSSION OF AGE DIFFERENCES
Ticehurst (1940), citing my earlier paper (Thomson 1939), said
that the analysis of recoveries of British-ringed Gannets ‘indicated
that in their first year they are definite migrants, but that sub-
sequently migratory instinct becomes less year by year, so that when
three years or more old, though most appear to move south of
Scottish waters, where they are seldom seen in winter, their move-
ments are rather in the nature of a dispersal than a definite migra-
tion southwards’. Waterston (1959) repeated part of this statement,
to the effect that after the first year ‘the migratory instinct becomes
less year by year’. In fact, I had gone no further than to say (page
286) that ‘the southward movement is more pronounced in the first
year of life than in subsequent seasons taken as a whole or than in the
second year by itself’. Nor did my figures provide any adequate
basis for Ticehurst’s elaboration of that conclusion.
Table 4 and fig. 2 fully confirm that first-year birds show a greater
tendency to migrate, in terms both of numbers and of distance, than
older birds. The big falling-off, however, occurs between the first
year of life and the second. The further decrease between second and
third years is relatively slight; likewise the decrease between third
and fourth years, after which the absolute numbers become too
small for more detailed analysis.
97
Migration of the Garnet
Furthermore, the numbers present in the southern zones in the
second, third and fourth winters do not necessarily reflect the
incidence of migration from Northern waters in the autumns of
these years, as there is evidence that many immature birds remain
in the wintering area through the breeding season.
If the question be considered from the other end, it is relevant
that the numbers of birds remaining in Northern waters in the
winter is higher after the first year and thereafter continues to
increase. On the other hand, the numbers wintering in West Euro-
pean waters remain roughly constant during the second, third and
fourth years of life.
MOVEMENT INTO THE MEDITERRANEAN
The earlier paper (Thomson 1939) showed only one recovery in the
Mediterranean Sea, off Algeria (then assigned to North African
waters). The data available for the present paper include 46
Mediterranean recoveries; these, with five more recent records,
are the subject of detailed analysis elsewhere, together with a
discussion of the somewhat sporadic published evidence of occur-
rence in the Mediterranean based on observation (Thomson, in
press). A summary will suffice here.
From the partial southward migration along the Atlantic sea-
boards of Europe and Africa, there is clearly a lateral diversion into
the Mediterranean Sea. This is relatively small, being represented
by little more than 6% of the total number of recoveries south of
Ushant.
The movement is more of the nature of a dispersal, numbers
falling off rapidly with distance, than a definite migration with an
eastward urge. The spread takes place along both the north and
south sides of the Mediterranean, the records being almost evenly
divided. There are exceptional records from the far corners of the
i Levant — a Bass Rock bird recovered in March of its first year of
life in the Gulf of Iskenderun, Turkey (36°4o'N, 36°oo'E), and an
Ailsa Craig bird in March of its fifth year at Ashdod, Israel (3 1 °48'N,
34°38'E). These are the only records from east of 20°E, and four-
fifths of the remainder are from west of 5°E (longitude of Mar-
seilles). All those from east of 5°E relate to the period November-
March inclusive.
With one exception, the birds had all been ringed as pulli. The
■atio of second-year to first-year recoveries (62.5%) is about double
fie corresponding ratio among all recoveries south of Ushant
'29.0%) . This and other points suggest that first-year birds frequently
*emain in the Mediterranean through their first summer. Further,
here is an apparent tendency to move northwards in summer into
he Gulf of Lions, an area not otherwise very productive of records.
98
Migration of the Garnet
PENETRATION OF THE BALTIC
The above-mentioned special study of lateral movement into the
Mediterranean draws a comparison with the situation in the Baltic
Sea. The Baltic is relatively inhospitable as a potential wintering
area, and the observational evidence rates the species as uncommon
there. It is therefore not surprising that ringing records show almost
no penetration beyond what one may call the Baltic approaches,
though it is perhaps slightly stretching that term to include a
Grassholm bird recovered in March of its second year in the Gulf
of Liibeck, off the coast of Mecklenburg, East Germany. The sole
definite exception is a Bass Rock bird recovered in June of its fifth
year in the Sovetsk region of Lithuania (55°5'N, 2i°52'E).
NORTHWARD OVERSPILL
There is a gannetry at Hermaness (6o°5o'N, o°54'W), about the
most northerly point in Britain. Recoveries substantially beyond
that latitude may be regarded as indicative of a northward over-
spill from the breeding range of the British population. They tend
almost inevitably to occur in or near other centres of Gannet popula-
tion in the Faeroe Islands, Iceland and northern Norway, and they
may be summarised as follows:
Faeroe Islands (centred c. 62°N, 7°W) : two from Bass Rock, one from Hermaness,
and one from Little Skellig (Co. Kerry), in June in their respective third years of
life; two from Grassholm in, respectively, July and ‘autumn’ of their third years
(further reference is made to the first of these on page 99) ; and one Grassholm bird
in July of its fourth year
Iceland: One from Ailsa Craig recovered at sea to the east (64°45'N, io^oAV) in
June of its fourth year; and one Bass Rock bird near Reykjavik ( c . 64°N, 22°W)
in July of its fourth year
Northern Norway: One from Bass Rock recovered near Hasvago, Flatanger, Nord
Trondelag (64°29/N, io°52'E) in June of its second year; and one from Grassholm
near Trondheim (63°36'N, io°23,E) in August of its third year
These records are, of course, included in the totals for zone N in
tables 3-5. All the recoveries were in summer, except one in ‘autumn’,
and none of the birds was more than about three years old.
RETURN TO COLONY OF ORIGIN
Records of Gannets returning to their native or former breeding
places in subsequent years are almost entirely dependent on further
ringing activity at these colonies, when adults are often caught on
their nests. The absence of records from other colonies is thus of no
evidential value; and a change from one colony to another could
come to notice only if ringing were done at both. In fact, almost all
the records are of Bass Rock birds returning there. With these
reservations, one may note the following records of individuals
Migration of the Garnet 99
returning to the colony where they had been ringed (returns merely
to the general locality being ignored) :
(1) Ringed as pulli on the Bass Rock and recovered there in subsequent seasons
(May-August) : i in 4th and again in 5th year of life, 3 in 5th, 5 in 6th, 7 in 7th,
6 in 8th, 3 in 10th. In addition, in 13 years of colour-ringing of pulli on the Bass
Rock, Dr J. B. Nelson (in litt.) has gained much evidence showing the strong
tendency of birds to return not only to the native colony, but to the precise part of
it in which they had been raised
(2) Ringed as pullus on Grassholm and recovered there: 1 in 5th year of life
(3) Ringed as adults on the Bass Rock and recovered there in subsequent
seasons (May-September) : 30 in all, mostly during the following four years but
some after longer intervals, up to 13 years; two were each recovered twice, in
different years (not counted twice in total). Further details have been given by
Nelson (1965, 1966)
(4) Ringed as adults on Grassholm and recovered there: one in July six years
later; one in May nine years later. (Larger figures given in Thomson 1939 were
due to the inclusion, on a less rigorous definition, of merely ‘local’ recoveries)
One may conclude that return to the native or former breeding
place is normal; but the almost total absence of recorded exceptions
has little significance in the circumstances. One apparent exception
(already mentioned briefly on page 98) is of a Grassholm bird
recovered in July of its fourth year of life — when approximately
three years of age — in the gannetry at Mykinesholm, in the Faeroe
Islands (62°07'N, 7°38'YV). It is known that some individuals in
immature plumage frequent colonies in the latter part of the season
one or more years before they are ready to breed. It is, of course,
obvious that birds must sometimes switch to different breeding
places, as the establishment of various new gannetries is well known ;
whether these are young birds breeding for the first time, or older
ones that have already bred elsewhere, is a matter for conjecture.
COMPARISON BETWEEN COLONIES
Table 5 compares recoveries of birds ringed at the three main
stations — the Bass Rock, Ailsa Craig and Grassholm. It is restricted
to first-year birds, as the starting points for dispersal in the second
and third years are not known ; as already shown, some immatures
remain in the wintering area through the summer.
It will be seen that Bass Rock birds are still mainly in Northern
waters through September; not until October do the numbers in
West European waters approach equality with those still in Northern
waters, and not until November are they in a clear majority. Grass-
holm birds, on the other hand, are already present in West European
waters in substantial numbers in August and to a major extent in
September. The Ailsa Craig pattern lies in between, with West
European recoveries first in a majority in October. By December,
recoveries of Bass Rock birds are evenly distributed over the four
100
Migration of the Garnet
Table 5. Recoveries of first-year Gannets Sula bassana from the three main
ringing localities, in each recovery zone
Month of BASS ROCK AILSA CRAIG GRASSHOLM
recovery
N
W
A
T
N
W
A
T
N
W
A
T
July
8
_
_
August
48
I
-
-
3
-
-
-
•5
7
-
-
September
89
12
-
-
22
l6
-
-
28
49
-
—
October
100
88
6
-
15
38
3
I
10
12
3
—
November
29
43
6
3
2
IO
IO
I
2
4
3
1
December
8
9
7
9
-
6
4
2
-
2
I
3
January
4
2
5
7
-
2
2
2
1
I
I
2
February
1
I
4
2
-
2
2
2
I
-
I
3
March
2
6
-
I
-
3
—
-
-
I
I
April
2
I
I
I
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
zones. In and after that month, recoveries of Ailsa Craig and
Grassholm birds are almost nil, but by this time the total figures are
becoming rather small. A separate paper on the dispersal of first-
year Gannets from the Bass Rock is in preparation.
POSSIBLE TEMPORAL CHANGES
My earlier paper was based on recoveries of birds ringed up to and
including 1937; the yield of viable recoveries was 3.2%. The
corresponding figure in the present study is almost 5.4%. Again,
there was only one Mediterranean record up to 1937, whereas there
have been 46 in all to the end of 1971, a ratio far out of scale with
the total increase. These facts might lead one to suspect some long-
term change in the pattern of migration such as might affect the
chances of recovery. It seems probable, however, that the difference
is due merely to improved reporting.
Some attempt has been made to investigate the possibilities by
comparing the results covered by the earlier paper with the
additional results included in the present one. There are two periods
of very roughly 30 years each, but the numbers of birds ringed in
those periods were markedly disparate — 6,384 and 25,297. Mani-
pulation of the figures has disclosed no differences that might not
be due to adventitious causes.
A likely explanation of at least part of the improved recovery
rate lies in the great preponderance of Bass Rock birds in latter
years, the North Sea being a very favourable catchment area (table
5). Of the 203 recoveries considered in the earlier paper, as many
as 1 14 were of Grassholm birds; only 43 came from the Bass Rock
colony and 46 from Ailsa Craig. This point is of interest in the
methodology of ringing data analysis.
Inspection of the records, without close analysis, has not brought
to light unusual movements in particular calendar years, such as
IOI
Migration of the Gannel
have been detected in certain other species, for example the Great
Skua Stercorarius skua (Thomson 1966). Lastly, the number of
recoveries from inland localities is very small, as would be expected.
OTHER POPULATIONS
As stated above, relatively little ringing has been done in the more
northerly part of the breeding range of the eastern Atlantic popula-
tion of the Gannet, where the main stations are off Iceland and in the
Faeroe Islands. The western Atlantic population breeds off New-
foundland and on islands in the Gulf of St Lawrence; over 10,000
have been ringed on Bonaventura Island, Quebec, and more than
500 recoveries are now under analysis (F. G. Cooch in litt.). It is
known from observational evidence that the migratory movement,
which extends southward to the Gulf of Mexico, is more pronounced
in the first year of life than in later years (Palmer 1962).
The possibly conspecific Cape Gannet S. capensis breeds in
large colonies on a few islands off Cape Province, South Africa, and
migrates northwards on both sides of the continent, but especially
on the west coast, as far as tropical waters. The results of ringing
nearly 20,000 birds at two of these colonics have been published
(Broekhuysen et at. 1961). Those ringed included a high proportion
of adults; and the recovery of birds at the breeding stations in
subsequent years was a feature of this study. As in the British
experience, there was a heavy mortality among the immature
birds; it was likewise they which made the most extensive migration.
The most distant recoveries were from Calabar, eastern Nigeria
(c. 4°3o'N), and Porto Amelia, Mozambique (c. i3°oo'S); the
former locality, north of the Equator, is within 8° of latitude of the
most southerly recovery of a British-ringed Gannet. Most of the
recoveries in tropical waters were in the non-breeding season (May-
September), but there were also some during the breeding season.
The New Zealand population of the possibly conspecific Australa-
sian Gannet S. senator has been the subject of a substantial ringing
i-j study (Wodzicki and Stein 1958). From their breeding places off
! the east coast of North Island, the birds migrate to the warmer
P waters on the south and east coasts of Australia, where they
apparently coexist with members of the small Australian population
' which breeds on islands in Bass Strait and off Tasmania. The
ringing results indicate that this movement is normal for first-year
1 birds, and that during the next two years the majority remain in
Australian waters; after the age of three, recoveries are almost
k exclusively in New Zealand. The movement of these New Zealand
birds is notable for being on a west-east line, and for having the
i pelagic gap of the Tasman Sea sharply intervening between home
waters and the area visited during immaturity. Similar movements
102 Migration of the Garnet
between New Zealand and Australia are made by seabirds of
various other species.
CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
The following conclusions are based solely on recoveries of Gannets
ringed at British and Irish colonies (excluding St Kilda), but are
not thought to be at variance with any observational evidence.
(1) Members of the population under study are partial migrants,
some remaining through the winter in Northern waters (though
showing substantial dispersal therein), others migrating southwards
to West European waters (off the west coasts of France and the
Iberian Peninsula) and, to some extent, to North-west African and
even Tropical waters (to within 120 of the Equator).
(2) From this main stream down the Atlantic seaboard, there is a
relatively minor lateral diversion into the Mediterranean Sea,
mostly affecting its western portion but extending on a smaller scale
to its eastern extremity.
(3) There is virtually no corresponding lateral movement into
the Baltic Sea beyond what may be termed its approaches.
(4) There is a small amount of northward overspill in summer
beyond the limit of the British breeding range (Faeroe Islands,
Iceland, northern Norway).
(5) Mature Gannets commonly return in subsequent years to
their native or former breeding colonies.
(6) Some birds, mainly immature, remain in the wintering area
during the summer.
(7) Birds in their first year of life are migratory to a markedly
higher degree than those in their second year taken alone, or than
all older birds taken together; this is shown in the proportion that
quit Northern waters in winter and in the numbers then found in
North-west African and Tropical waters.
(8) That there is any further decrease in the migratory urge after
the second year is doubtful, despite some slight indication of this in
the figures. The picture is obscured by the fact that some of the
immature birds do not return to Northern waters in summer.
(9) First-year birds from the Bass Rock make their initial dis-
persal mainly in the North Sea and appear in numbers in West
European waters decidedly later than Grassholm birds, which have
a direct outlet from the Irish Sea.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The records were provided by the British Trust for Ornithology through the ever-
helpful agency of Robert Spencer. The paper has been seen in draft by him, and
Migration of the Garnet 103
by Dr J. B. Nelson and Dr W. R. P. Bourne, and their comments are gratefully
acknowledged. David and Valerie Ireland made the illustrations.
REFERENCES
Broekhuysen, G. J., Liversidge, R., and Rand, R. W. 1961. ‘The South African
Gannet Morns capensis. I. Distribution and movements’. Ostrich, 32: 1 - 1 9.
Nelson, J. B. 1965. ‘The behaviour of the Gannet’. Brit. Birds, 58:233-288,
3 ‘3-336-
1966. ‘The breeding biology of the Gannet Sula bassana on the Bass Rock,
Scotland’. Ibis, 108: 584-626.
Palmer, R. S. 1962. Handbook of North American Birds. New Haven and London,
vol 1.
Thomson, A. L. 1939. ‘The migration of the Gannet: results of marking in the
British Isles’. Brit. Birds, 32: 282-289 (with citation of earlier literature).
1966. ‘An analysis of recoveries of Great Skuas ringed in Shetland’. Brit.
Birds, 59: 1- 1 5.
1972. ‘Migration of the Gannet: a reassessment of British ringing results’
(summary of unscripted paper read at BOU Iceland conference, June 1972).
Ibis, 114: 584-585.
(in press). ‘The migration of the Gannet into the Mediterranean’. J. Bombay
Nat. Hist. Soc. (Contributed to a special issue in honour of Dr Sdlim Ali.)
(in preparation). ‘Dispersal of first-year Gannets from the Bass Rock’.
Ticehurst, N. F. 1940. In The Handbook of British Birds, by H. F. Witherby et at.
London, vol 4: p 21.
Waterston, G. 1959. In The Birds of the British Isles, by D. A. Bannerman. Edin-
burgh and London, vol 8: p 30.
Witherby, H. F. ; Leach, E. P. ; Thomson, A. L. ; Spencer, R. (successively, or in
different combinations, with various titles). 1910 et seq. Annual reports and
recovery lists of the British and Irish ringing scheme, in Brit. Birds, vols 4-64, and
Bird Study, supplements to vols 19 and 20.
Wodzicki, K., and Stein, P. 1958. ‘Migration and dispersal of New Zealand
Gannets’. Emu, 58: 289-312.
Sir A. Landsborough Thomson , 42 Girdwood Road, London swi8 5QS
The breeding behaviour and biology
of the Moorhen
JV. A. Wood
INTRODUCTION
The Moorhen Gallinula chloropus, despite its almost cosmopolitan
distribution and general abundance, has been the subject of remark-
ably little investigation. Howard (1940), in his classic monograph,
described in detail some aspects of its behaviour, mainly sexual.
Steinbacher (1939) and Anderson (1965) briefly outlined the breed-
ing biology of birds living under semi-artificial conditions. Anfinnsen
(1961) and Norderhaug (1962) described its colonisation of Norway
and outlined its habitat preferences and reproduction in that country,
while the study by Relton (1972) of Moorhens nesting on farm
ponds was the first to deal with this species living in an agricultural
habitat. Huxley and Wood (in press) give a general survey of its
breeding season, clutch size and breeding success in Britain through
an analysis of Nest Record Cards completed by members of the
British Trust for Ornithology.
The present paper describes the findings of a field study carried
out over two seasons in an attempt to understand more fully the
displays and breeding biology of Moorhens living in lowland
agricultural England. The first part covers displays and territory,
the second breeding biology.
LOCALITIES AND METHODS
Almost daily observations were undertaken between 1st March 1968
and 28th February 1970 in a study area covering 53 hectares of
agricultural grassland in the Avon valley near Fordingbridge,
Hampshire. The fields were mostly divided by hedgerows of
hawthorn Crataegus monogyna and bramble Rubus; some were also
bordered by streams and rivers, which had a total length of 3 km in
the study area and comprised about 3.2 hectares of surface water.
Owing to the shyness of the Moorhens in the Avon valley, some
additional observations, mainly concerned with behaviour, were
made on semi-tame birds inhabiting a small pond in Poole Park,
Dorset.
Some broods of newly hatched chicks were marked individually
with numbered fish-fingerling tags attached to the patagium, and
all fully grown birds with numbered metal leg-rings. For individual
recognition of fully grown birds in the field, coloured plastic rings
were employed initially, but these were abandoned in favour of
104
Breeding biology of Moorhen 105
coloured plastic wing-tags similar to those described by Anderson
(i963)-
As Moorhens lack sexually dimorphic plumage characters, sex
could be determined only by behavioural differences and by the
measurements made at capture, males tending to be larger than
females (Wood 1970 and in prep.). First-year birds (up to the summer
following their birth) were distinguished from older birds (all
termed ‘adults’) by the plumage characters described by Witherbv
et al. (1938-41).
DISPLAY ELEMENTS AND POSTURES
The basic constituents of all adult Moorhen displays appear to be
as follows :
1. Head and neck position. In most aggressive displays the head
and neck are well depressed, while in courtship the head is bowed.
The normal, non-aggressive posture is described below.
2. Shield position. The bright red frontal shield is prominent
against the black head feathers during aggressive displays, while in
courtship, because the head is bowed, the shield is least obvious.
3. Undertail-coverts position. Normally the tail is depressed and
only a small part of the white undertail-coverts is presented, but
when the tail is raised these coverts can be expanded at will to
display a large area of white. Raising of the tail takes place fre-
quently when the bird is nervous, perhaps as a warning to its mate,
and in certain displays.
4. Wing-arching. In the typical wing-arch, the wings are held
erect above and away from the body, while still half-closed: this
element is used in certain aggressive displays.
From these four elements or signals, the Moorhen forms a number
of distinct displays in addition to the normal and alarm postures.
These postures are described first, followed by the aggressive and
>exual displays. All are performed by both sexes, except where
otherwise stated.
' Normal posture (fig. ia)
This posture is used when the Moorhen is undisturbed. The head is
1 leld forward and often retracted (fig. ia), the tail relaxed with the
indertai 1-coverts barely showing. If the bird is swimming, the head
rnd neck jerk with a forward action.
Alarm posture (fig. ib)
The neck is stretched erect, the tail quickly raised, the white
indertail-coverts at least partially expanded, and the entire tail
'apidly flicked up and down. This general alarm signal is given by
106 Breeding biology of Moorhen
both territorial and non-breeding birds at any time of the year,
and is sometimes accompanied by a loud, sharp alarm call.
AGGRESSIVE DISPLAYS
Charging and Splattering (fig. 2)
These displays frequently occur if the territorial boundary is
transgressed by another bird. In a charge (fig. 2a) the territory
owner swims or runs at high speed towards the invader, with head
and neck horizontal with the body and frontal shield prominent.
Splattering (fig. 2b) is an extension of the charge, involving wing-
flapping either over land or over the surface of water, but without
the bird actually taking flight. It may be preceded by charging or
may start immediately from the normal posture. The attacked bird
usually flees in a similar manner but holds its head more erect.
These aggressive displays are often sufficient to drive away even
non-territorial Coot Fulica atra and Mallard Anas platyrhynchos, and
may take place at any season.
Mutual retreat (fig. 3)
The term adopted by Gullion (1952) for this display in the American
Coot F. arnericana was ‘paired display’, but this is misleading since
it is another aggressive display between unpaired individuals.
It was always observed to be performed by two birds simultaneously.
The head and neck are held horizontal with the body, as in the
charge position; the wings are arched above the back (sometimes
with primary feathers crossing) ; and the tail is held erect, with the
undertail-coverts expanded to display the maximum area of white
feathering. In this position, the two birds always face away from one
another and both slowly move in opposite directions, probably
always into their own territories.
This display was observed frequently both on land and in the
water, usually occurring on neighbours’ territorial boundaries and
often following a fight. It was recorded at every season of the year
in birds maintaining territories.
Challenging and Fighting (fig. 4)
Observations tend to suggest that actual fighting takes place only
between birds attempting to establish or enlarge a territory, and
that it starts only if the invader is determined to ‘hold its ground’.
Fighting was observed more frequently on land than in water.
The two birds stretch their bodies and necks upwards, look at one
another for a few seconds (the ‘challenge’ position — fig. 4a), and
then fight, kicking violently with the legs and trying to claw their
opponent’s breast. Frequently, as the fight reaches a peak, the wings
are flapped and both legs are brought into action; both birds may
Fig. i. Normal posture (a), and alarm posture (b), of Moorhens Gallinula chloropus;
in the latter the tail is rapidly flicked up and down (see pages 105-106)
Fig. 2. Moorhens Gallinula
chloropus (a) charging on
water, and (b) splattering
(see opposite)
a
Fig. 3. Moorhen Gallinula chloropus
in ‘mutual retreat’ from another
(see opposite)
io8
Breeding biology of Moorhen
Fig. 4. Aggressive
Moorhens Gallinula
chloropus (a) chal-
lenging one another
(note erect stance),
and (b) fighting, in
which the feet are
used to claw the
opponent (see page
106 and below)
then continue fighting as much as a metre off the ground. The
‘winner’ is usually the higher of the two, and the combat ends with
the loser fleeing from the territory. ‘Mutual retreat’ by both birds
frequently follows on the boundary of the territory.
Fighting was observed only from late February until early June.
Charging was sufficient to evict intruders at other times of the year.
Swanning and Churning (fig. 5)
In swanning, the posture is similar to ‘mutual retreat’ except that
the undertail-coverts are not fanned. Churning, which may then
follow, involves slapping the water violently with alternate feet.
These displays are used against intruders of other species, even
including man, but apparently only in the defence of nests containing
eggs (particularly near the hatching stage) and young. The two
displays are interrelated, since swanning always takes place first and,
Breeding biology of Moorhen
109
Fig. 5. Moorhen Gallinula chloropus
swanning: note similarity to mutual
retreat in fig. 3 (see pages 108-109)
if insufficient to deter the ‘enemy’, is followed by churning. Both
displays were observed only in the water, and were frequently
coupled with a distress call.
SEXUAL DISPLAYS
Meeting and Passing
This seems to function as a greeting ceremony when the members of
a pair meet after a period of separation. It was observed throughout
the year in territorial birds and has been described in detail by
Howard (1940). The male and female lower their heads and flick
their tails once or twice, or sometimes fan them. After this, they
carry on feeding or resume whatever activity they were doing
previously.
Bowing and Nibbling (fig. 6)
Bowing and nibbling are displays connected with courtship and
possibly with pair-formation. Both sexes are involved and, in most
cases that I have observed, bowing has been performed by the
female and nibbling by the male, though the reverse also occurs. It
may take place either on land or on a constructed display platform
on the surface of the water (to be described in the second part of
this paper) and may occur throughout the year in paired territorial
birds.
Fig. 6. Pair of Moorhens Gallinula chloropus bowing and nibbling (see pages 109-1 10)
IIO
Breeding biology of Moorhen
Fig. 7. Pair of Moorhens Gallinula chloropus in courtship chase (see below)
Upon meeting or after a chase (see below), the female or sub-
missive bird bows with head pointing towards the ground. If its
mate is receptive to this, the submissive bird allows the other to run
its bill through its feathers.
Howard (1940) referred to these displays in combination as ‘plat-
form action’, though their performance is not confined to platforms.
Courtship chasing (fig. 7)
Upon meeting, the male sometimes chases the female around the
territory for up to a minute. The two birds run, each with head
and neck stretched forwards and body horizontal, the male’s bill
usually almost touching the female’s tail. The female sometimes
fans her undertail-coverts. When the female decides to stop running,
she may bow for the male to perform nibbling, or she may arch (see
below) and allow the male to copulate. Courtship chasing was
observed only in the spring prior to egg-laying.
Arching and Coition (fig. 8)
Arching is performed by the female prior to coition and consists of
Plate 13. Display grounds of Black ( » rouse l.vruru. 1 tetrix
(photos: Costa Tysk ), showing two rivals males facing up in
Upright’ posture (above left), and males addre
female (below); the lek is usually m the centre of a prat bog (pages 116-120
central Sweden
hr ‘Wide-necked
■ssing their ‘Rookooing’ song to a
jWM
5k'*.^SSs!
Plate 14. Male Black Grouse at Scottish lekj
above and left, in the ‘Wide-necked UprigH
posture, Dumfriesshire, April 1970, and Pert)
shire, May 1959 ( photos : Robert T. Smith, C. j
Palmar)-, below, ‘hissing’ (often accompanied ^
wing-flapping at rival), also Dumfriesshii
April 1970 {photo: Robert T. Smith ) (page 11
E 15. Above and right, male Black Grouse
1 ming ‘Flutter Jumps’, showing descent
-scent phases respectively, southern Sweden
Arne Schmitz); below, in the ‘Forward
■ e’ and uttering the far-carrying, continu-
ubbling ‘Rookooing’ song, Dumfriesshire,
1970 {photo: Robert T. Smith) (page 118)
m,A
Plate 17 ( ohbosite ). Male Black Grouse displaying to females: top two. trying
to entice uninterested female by ‘Rookooing’ while walking to and fro next to
her (photos: Robert T. Smith); below, two males ‘courting same female If, koto:
Tony Tysk ); bottom, close-up of male ‘Rookooing’ to female, head anc neck held
very low and primaries scraping the ground {photo: Arne Schmitz ) (pages 118-119)
Plate 16. Females overlooking the ‘arena’, watching the lek, central Sweden
{photo: Gosta Tysk); females do not arrive on display grounds in this area until
the very beginning of May, when the ground is often still snow-covered (page 1 18)
1*’4XS
rrm
Plates 18 and 19. Three male Black Grouse (identified by letters fighting,
Dumfriesshire, April 1971 (photos: Robert T. Smith*: note n's territorial l)oundary
(broken line) and position of tussock (asterisk . Top left, a and h facing up,
about to fight; centre, n and c at start of bout; bottom, 11 jumping bark from
c, which has landed after an attack; above, following a counter-attack (each bird
in this tussle appeared to have the advantage in turn); below, 11 now in close
combat with a, while c and a fourth bird behind seem uninterested page 119
Plate 20. Male Bla
Grouse threatening ea ;
other across territor j
boundary (much co I
moner than actual fig i
ing) : above, facing ,
{photo: Robert T. Smit
left, hissing; below, ‘F
ward with Rookooi: ■
( photos : Arne Schnu
(page 1 19)
1 1 1
Breeding biology of Moorhen
two parts, the ‘standing arch’ and the ‘squat arch’. In the standing
arch (fig. 8a), she stands with her head bent downwards so that her
bill points towards her toes. The squat arch (fig. 8b) which follows
is similar, except that she squats on bent legs. While she is in this
position, the male steps on to her back, maintaining balance by
flapping his wings, and then coition occurs. Arching and coition
invariably occurred out of the water, sometimes, but by no means
always, on the display platforms.
Post-copulatory display (fig. 9)
Displacement-feeding and preening sometimes take place imme-
diately after coition, but more frequently these two activities are
preceded by a post-copulatory display in which the female turns
her head to the side of her body while the male bows.
Fig. 9. Post-copulatory display of Moorhens Galli-
nula chloropus, in which birds bow to each other
COMPARISON WITH OTHER RAILS AND RELATIONSHIPS
The display postures of the Moorhen appear remarkably similar to
the corresponding actions of the American and Eurasian Coots,
which have been extensively described by Gullion (1952) and
Kornowski (1957) respectively. My own observations on the Eura-
sian Coot also confirm this similarity.
The greatest differences may be attributed to morphology and
habitat preferences. For example, coots have longer neck feathers;
these are erected to form a ‘ruff’ which is used as an additional
signal in aggressive actions. The white undertail-coverts are present
in the American Coot but absent in the Eurasian, though the latter
still uses the tail as a display signal. Except those closely associated
with copulation, most displays may be performed either on land or
1 12 Breeding biology of Moorhen
on water, though coots, in keeping with their more aquatic nature,
display more frequently on water.
In place of ‘courtship chasing’ (on water), Gullion used the term
‘swimming arch’ and Kornowski ‘the drive’, but both appear
analogous with the terrestrial chasing of the Moorhen. Meanley
(1957) described a similar display in the King Rail Rallus elegans,
terming it a ‘pursuit display’. However, unlike the Moorhen, the
male King Rail holds his bill wide open while chasing the female.
Meanley also described nibbling, and a posture which could be
intermediate between the Moorhen’s bowing and arching.
Courtship-feeding has not been recorded in coots, and there
appears to be only one record of this in the Moorhen (Holstein
1938), suggesting that it is probably not regular. Yet it occurs in the
King Rail (Meanley 1957), the Water Rail R. aquaticus (E. L.
Turner and R. Zimmermann in Witherby et al. 1938-41) and the
Purple Gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio (Holyoak 1970).
Observations on the Purple Gallinule by Holyoak suggest that
some of its display postures are similar to those of the Moorhen.
Most differences follow from its more sociable nature: several pairs
may live amicably in a group and some birds may even share duties
at the nest. In keeping with this sociability, it seems that the
aggressive postures are less clearly marked, and the tail-flicking
exhibited as an alarm posture by the Moorhen is used additionally
to show anger. Apparently ‘mutual retreat’ is absent in the Purple
Gallinule, but the threat posture is similar to the charge, and the
challenge position almost so. The latter is accompanied by a
vocalisation, as was also reported in the Tasmanian Native Hen
Tribonyx mortierii by Ridpath (1964).
Apart from courtship-feeding, the courtship and sexual postures
described by Holyoak do not appear to differ greatly from the
corresponding ones of the Moorhen.
In recent years the study of the behaviour patterns of certain
avian orders, such as wildfowl (Anatidae) (e.g. Lorenz 1951-53,
Johnsgard i960), have shown that these patterns are perhaps at
least as important a means of taxonomic separation as morphological
characters. The genus Fulica is regarded by most authorities as
belonging to a separate subfamily, the Fulicinae, while the genera
Gallinula, Rallus, Porphyrio and others are grouped together in the
subfamily Rallinae. Comparing the work of Gullion (1952) and
Kornowski (1957) on coots with the present findings, there appear
to be few, if any, basic differences between the behaviour patterns
of coots and the Moorhen. Obviously further work is required on
other rail behaviour patterns, but it is tentatively suggested that the
genera Gallinula and Fulica should be regarded as more closely
related than they are at present.
Breeding biology of Moorhen 1 13
TERRITORY AND THE ANNUAL CYCLE
The term ‘territory’ is taken here to mean a defended area as
defined by Hinde (1956). The pair occupying such a territory
defends a clearly defined, though invisible, boundary, within which
they charge and attack, and normally chase out, any trespassing
Moorhen.
Among the resident Moorhens in the Avon valley study area,
territorial behaviour persisted throughout the year in some pairs,
but with seasonal variations in the degree of hostility and in the
size of the territories maintained. Some pairs defended territories
only from early March until late October or November, even though
they remained in the same general area throughout the winter.
This shorter-term maintenance of territorv was additionally found
in all birds in the Poole Park study area during 1969, though it was
not possible to determine whether they stayed there during the
winter.
Two pairs in 1968 and a further three in 1969 established tem-
porary breeding territories in the Avon study area in late April and
May. However, these birds were all unsuccessful in hatching their
eggs and disappeared by the end of June.
The foregoing suggests that not all pairs behave alike, and thus
the following interpretation is based on the apparent situation found
in the majority of pairs studied. The times of the year for particular
changes in behaviour are also subject to variation, perhaps by two
weeks cither way, in some individuals.
September to February
During the autumn, observations indicated that a gradual decrease
in territorial defence took place. In the Avon valley, the areas
defended during the past breeding season became smaller (table 1),
though aggressive actions still occurred when these smaller ‘core’
areas, as Gullion (1953) termed them in the American Coot, were
trespassed.
By November, territory shrinkage had ceased and the ‘core’
areas maintained consisted of about 40 metres (range 33-47 metres)
of waterway and the adjacent land up to a metre or so from the
banks. Thus, a large proportion of the waterways that had pre-
viously been occupied as breeding territories was now made up of
non-defended ‘neutral’ areas.
At Poole Park, territories were completely abandoned and the
birds moved about more freely than earlier in the year.
When a stream was frozen over there appeared to be no defence
or maintenance of ‘core’ areas, these also temporarily becoming
neutral areas, but when milder weather returned each ‘core’ area
was again defended by an occupying pair.
-
1 14 Breeding biology of Moorhen
Table 1. Numbers of pairs of Moorhens Gallinula chloropus defending
breeding territories and winter ‘core* areas of different extents
*This was the same pair in both years, which occupied the only pond (circular and
33 metres wide) in the Avon study area, defending it summer and winter.
The Avon valley 1969 total of 13 pairs includes one pair that did not lay eggs
Length of waterway avon valley poole park
defended (metres) 1968 1969 1969
BREEDING TERRITORIES
up to 40
I*
1*
4
41-80
-
-
81-120
-
4
-
I2I-l6o
4
2
-
l6l-200
3
2
-
201-220
2
4
TOTAL PAIRS
10
13
4
WINTER ‘CORE’ AREAS
3O-4O
3
3
—
41-50
2
3
—
TOTAL PAIRS
5
6
-
During the winter months the population of Moorhens, in addi-
tion to the young raised locally and still present in the area,
increased. The origin of these immigrants was not known, though it
is of interest that one such bird, trapped, ringed and tagged on 15th
February 1969, was recovered in Belgium on 22nd April the same
year (Spencer 1971). These winter visitors were frequently in small
flocks of up to 15 individuals which utilised the undefended areas
and also grazed in the adjacent fields, often some distance from
water.
Members of pairs retaining ‘core’ areas often ventured into sur-
rounding areas in search of food, frequently mixing with the winter
flocks. Normally, one member of the pair always stayed in the ‘core’
area until the other returned, thus maintaining its defence at all
times, but this arrangement broke down during hard weather when
the ‘core’ area froze and food became more scarce.
March to August
An increase in territorial activity became evident among resident
birds during March. Moorhens holding winter ‘core’ areas expanded
them, and other resident birds also established territories. By the
first half of April, few or no neutral areas were left and winter flocks
disappeared. During this time, and continuing until late May,
aggressive displays were at a peak and fighting was frequently
observed.
It became evident from observations on tagged birds that during
Breeding biology of Moorhen 1 1 5
March, and in some cases February, some territories ‘changed
hands’. One tagged male which lost his territory in mid-February
joined a winter flock and then later, in March, regained his former
territory.
The majority of first-year birds disappeared in early March,
with two exceptions in the main study area, both tagged males.
One paired and bred successfully; the other also paired but estab-
lished only a temporary territory. In the latter case, although
display platforms were built, there wras no evidence of actual nesting,
and the pair was finally driven out by its neighbours in late May.
This neighbouring pair incorporated the newly won area into its
own territory. In mid-October, the same male (now just over a year
old) returned to the study area and established a new territory, of
‘core’ area size, about a kilometre upstream from his previous one.
Within a few days another (untagged) bird was noted there, and
their behaviour, including bowing and nibbling, suggested that
they had paired. The following spring this same pair bred success-
fully in the territory they had established the previous October.
As egg-laying and incubation proceeded, less fighting occurred
and aggression mostly took the form of ‘mutual retreat’ and charging
and splattering. Possibly this was because territory sizes were well
established by then and aggressive displays alone were a sufficient
deterrent to birds contravening territorial boundaries.
DISPLAYS AND TERRITORY DISCUSSION
The non-aggressive displays of the Moorhen are relatively simple
and their primary function is probably sexual synchronisation. In
contrast, the numerous and elaborate aggressive displays seem in
keeping with the species’ highly territorial nature, and suggest that
the acquisition and maintenance of a territory is an essential
prerequisite for a pair to attempt to breed. The defence of even a
small winter territory or ‘core’ area seemingly has the advantage
that a pair, having established a place, needs only to expand this
in the spring, and that normally such birds have a greater chance
of maintaining and expanding their stand than does a strange pair of
acquiring a territory from birds already in occupation. However,
such an advantage may sometimes be offset by the time spent
guarding a winter ‘core’ area when food becomes scarce in the
immediate vicinity. Minor differences in food availability might
be one factor that decides whether or not a pair will defend such an
area, and these might additionally account for the breakdown in
defence when the weather is particularly hard and the water frozen
over.
(to be concluded)
The lek of the Black Grouse
Ingemar Hjorth
Photographs by Robert T. Smith , Arne Schmitz , Gosta and
Tony Tysk , and C. E. Palmar
Plates 13-20
The Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrix is well known to ornithologists as a
species that displays collectively. Most males of a population keep
together in small packs in the summer, or in bigger flocks during the
winter, which, on most days of the year, attend a ‘display ground’.
They habitually abstain from visiting the display ground only in
January and July. The adult males make territorial demands in a
part of the display ground termed the ‘arena’, which is usually
located in the most open area of the population’s home range — at the
centre of a bog, moor, marsh or meadow, or even on the frozen
surface of a lake. Once selected, the arena is revisited year after year.
The older birds show an extreme tenacity to this place, and younger
ones are attracted there and maintain the tradition. The birds often
cling to their old arena even when roads have been built through it.
On the arena some males are well established: these are called
‘regulars’. Others visit the site more sporadically, or are unsuccessful
in defending a territory there: these males are termed ‘incidentals’.
The males on an arena display threat postures, fight neighbours
and chase intruders from their territories. When females are present
the males try to attract them for copulation. All these routines
constitute the ‘lek’, a collective performance on a traditional place,
the arena. Some males, however, never seem to attend a lek. These
‘soloists’ prefer performing in isolation on the ground or in a tree
at the very same site day after day, often well within hearing
distance of an arena. Similarly, after half an hour of foraging follow-
ing the morning lek, regulars in high season (late April and early
May) usually display for a further period, but solitarily at fairly
fixed sites in open fields or woods surrounding the display ground.
Females may also turn up at these places and at those of soloists.
For fuller accounts of Black Grouse leks and comparisons with
other tetraonids, see Hohn (1953), Hamerstrom and Hamerstrom
(i960), Kruijt (1962), Kruijt and Hogan (1967) and Hjorth (1970).
The present text is intended only as a brief summary to accompany
the photographs on plates 13-20 (taken at display grounds in Scot-
land and Sweden) and is the first feature on this subject to be
published in British Birds since those of Yeates (1936) and Lack
(1939)-
Lek of the Black Grouse 1 1 7
The display ground (plate 1 3)
Taking the species’ whole range into account, the central portion
of a peat bog (plate 13a) is the most frequent habitat for a Black
Grouse lek. In western Europe today, an aggregation of 25 males
must be considered a big lek flock, but in the Soviet Union gather-
ings of as many as 200 individuals have been reported (Dementiev
and Gladkov 1966-68). On the arena, territorial boundaries are
easily recognised by watching the spots where males fight or threaten
each other. For an observer who sporadically visits the arena, the
territorial system may appear confusing. In high season, however, a
few days’ study are enough to map each male’s demands, since most
of the boundaries vary but half a metre or less from day to day.
Territory size varies with population density and position in the
arena. In the centre, territories are small (about 200 square metres),
whereas peripheral ones are much bigger and often without external
boundaries. In meadows and cultivated fields in continental Europe
south of the Baltic, the birds are scattered over a much wider area
than that shown in the photograph on plate 13a.
The males congregate for the lek even in winter when snow covers
the ground. In the northern parts of the species’ range the snow has
not gone by the time high season occurs (as in plate 13b, taken in
central Sweden). In this case, the males spend the night in the
jadjacent forests and do not arrive on the arena until sunrise, but
when the ground is nearly or entirely snow-free they fly to the arena
1 .«an hour or two before sunrise, in early twilight. The shift from
< sunrise-arrival to early dawn-arrival is often very sudden (around
15th April in southern Sweden) ; for further details see Hjorth 1968.
Displays of individual males (plates 14-15)
■ When a male arrives at the arena, he usually lands on its edge.
There he fans and raises his tail, exposing the beautiful, rose-shaped
cluster of white undertail-coverts (plate 14b), and adopts the
‘Wide-necked Upright’ posture, one of the less intense threat
postures (plate 14a). This attitude is held while he walks or runs
towards and into his territory. The faster he runs, the more is his
head directed forwards. Now and then he stops, extends his neck
upwards, stretches his legs, and hisses with open beak (plate 14c).
In cold weather a cloud of water vapour may leave the mouth. By
this far-carrying call — a two-note hiss which can be described as
‘choo-iischt’ — he advertises his presence and position. Hissings are
' ' given frequently throughout the morning lek, but they predominate
" during its opening. An optical signal is commonly added to this
two-note hiss: while calling, the male once or twice flaps his wings
|k rapidly at the shoulders, stretching the underarm and manus
slightly, so that the white underwings prominently flash forwards.
1 1 8 Lek of the Black Grouse
Such flashes are normally included in hissings addressed to rivals
nearby.
When another Black Grouse of either sex, or even another
grouse-like bird, is seen flying in the vicinity of the arena, or when
females walk over or are copulated with in neighbouring territories,
the males on the arena spring into the air for a ‘Flutter Jump’ or
‘Flutter Flight’ (plate 15a, b). By such behaviour, including also
harsh hissings, they effectively advertise their territories. The sound
tells conspecific birds the rough direction of the performing male or
group of males. The flashing white underwings, especially con-
spicuous during the descent (plate 15a), make the exact position of
the performer fully clear.
Soon after arriving in his territory, the male usually adopts the
‘Forward posture’ and emits the powerful ‘Rookooing song’ (plate
1 5c). Owing to the ventriloquial character of the bubbling notes and
to their ability to carry over a much wider area than the home
range of one lek flock, it is very difficult to locate the source of this
sound. Probably even female grouse have difficulty in deciding the
positions of males from this song. However, the main significance
of the bubbling notes to a female is probably not to guide her to
displaying males but to stimulate her gonadal development in early
spring. The males’ song has a physiological influence upon females,
one that may be essential to a species in which the sexes are separated
for most of the year. The swollen neck of the performer is only partly
due to feather-raising. While the notes are being produced the beak
is actually closed, and air from the lungs rushes into an inflatable
oesophagus, which then swells prominently. Each song lasts only
about seconds, but when strongly motivated the male may sing
continually for long periods, and the songs then merge into a per-
sistent murmuring of bubbling notes. At the end of each song,
however, the beak opens momentarily.
Encounters between males and females (plates 16-17)
When females arrive at the lek, they often alight in trees (if there are
any) on or close to the arena. There they may sit for long periods
watching the lek, now and then preening with nervous-looking
movements (plate 16). When interested in participating in the lek,
the female starts walking over the arena. When she is well within the
boundaries of a territory, its defender begins to encircle her or walks
to and fro in front of her, continually ‘Rookooing’ (plates I7a-c).
This male behaviour is often called ‘courting’, but to all appearances
it is an intense threat, the function of which seems to be to display
superiority to the female. However, males do not become successful
copulators by a forceful approach. A skilful male balances his
‘threat’ perfectly and walks around the female until she shows com-
Lek of the Black Grouse 1 1 9
plcte subordination. Only when she adopts the posture of invitation
does he dare copulate with her. By her squatted posture, sleeked
plumage and compact tail, a soliciting female contrasts strikingly
with an intensely threatening male. Then the barrier of fright in the
male is broken, and he does not hesitate to behave sexually by
copulating with her.
There are some differences between a male performing routine
‘Rookooing’ and one addressing his song to a nearby female (plate
i~d). First, his primaries are lowered stiffly so that they scrape the
ground, making tracks in snow. Second, when not rapidly walking,
his body and especially his neck are kept very low. Thirdly, his
fanned and raised tail is always tilted a little towards that side where
the female stands or walks, unless he is facing her, when his tail is
held centrally.
Encounters between rival males (plates 18-20)
A male’s tendency to fight his rival is revealed by a narrowing
neck. A repeatedly uttered ‘Nasal Whinny’ reveals a conflict of
motivations (attack and escape). In the series of photographs of
fighting on plates 18-19, the combatants are named A, b and c. A
little tussock is marked with an asterisk, and the rough position of
b’s territorial boundary is denoted by a broken line.
Plate 1 8a Here c watches a and b which are about to attack each other.
Plate 18b b has left a and fights with c: the latter is just attacking.
Plate 1 8c c has landed after an attack, and b jumps backwards.
Plate iga b has attacked, and c is jumping backwards.
Plate igb b has stopped fighting c and is now in combat with a.
At territorial boundaries males threaten each other for much
longer periods than those during which they actually fight. Their
tactics combine facing-up in the ‘Wide-necked Upright’ posture
(plate 20a), hissing (plate 20b) and ‘Forward with Rookooing’
(plate 20c) . After a while with one neighbour, a male loses interest
in defending that portion of the boundary and rushes towards
another rival, the result being a repeated rushing to and fro within
the territory, interrupted by periods of hissing or ‘Rookooing’ in its
centre, or of encircling females.
REFERENCES
Dementiev, G. P., and Gladkov, N. A. 1966-68. Birds of the Soi'iet Union. Israel
Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, vol 4.
Hamerstrom, F., and Hamerstrom, F. i960. ‘Comparability of some social dis-
plays of grouse’. Proc. Int. Orn. Congr., 12: 274-293.
Hjorth, I. 1968. ‘Significance of light in the initiation of morning display of the
Black Grouse ( Lyrurus tetrix L.)’. Viltrevy , 5: 39-94.
1970. ‘Reproductive behaviour in Tetraonidae with special reference to
males’. Viltrevy, 7: 183-596.
120
Lek of the Black Grouse
Hohn, E. O. 1953. ‘Display and mating behaviour of the Black Grouse Lyrurus
tetrix (L.)\ J. Anim. Behav., 1 : 48-58.
Kruijt, J. P. 1962. ‘Korhoenders’. Levende Nat., 65: 145-165, 181-195.
and Hogan, J. A. 1967. ‘Social behaviour on the lek in Black Grouse,
Lyrurus tetrix tetrix (L.)’. Ardea, 55: 203-240.
Lack, D. 1939. ‘The display of the Blackcock’. Brit. Birds, 32: 290-303.
Yeates, G. K. 1936. ‘On the fighting of Blackcock’. Brit. Birds, 30: 34-37, plates
2-3.
Dr Ingemar Hjorth, Zoologiska Institutionen, Goteborgs Universitet, Fack ,
S-400 33 Goteborg, Sweden
Notes
Iris colour of juvenile Night Herons The Handbook records the
iris colour of juvenile Night Herons Nycticorax nycticorax as brown.
During the autumn of 1970 I examined 14 juvenile Night Herons in
the hand in the Parque Nacional de Donana, south-west Spain.
The iris colour varied from yellow to orange. Two had the iris
yellow, six predominantly yellow but with faint red streaks, five
predominantly orange formed by moderate red lines, and one
bright orange formed by extensive red streaks. P. J. Belman
ioj Grange Road, London W5
Common Terns roosting on water During the afternoon of 5th
October 1967, at Gorsham Lake, Wiltshire, I spent some time
watching a Common Tern Sterna hirundo fishing. All the Sterna terns
that I had seen there previously had stayed for only a few hours,
leaving before dusk. As the light began to fade, I assumed that the
tern would go to roost on the banks of the lake or on a small wooded
island which offered suitable roosting areas. To my surprise, how-
Notes
121
ever, it alighted on the water near five feeding Mallards Anas platy-
rhynchos and three Tufted Ducks Aythya fuligula, which began to move
away from it. After five minutes the tern took flight and flew round
the lake several times before descending on to the water where it
remained for the next 30 minutes, until I lost it from sight in total
darkness.
On 9th and 10th October I watched what I presumed to be the
same Common Tern at Corsham Lake, and on both days it again
descended on to the lake 30 minutes before total darkness, and
remained there. On 12th two Common Terns were present and they
both settled on the water at 1 7.55 hours GMT within a metre of each
other. I watched them until 18.15 GMT, when it became too dark
to see them.
The Handbook (5 : 29) stated ‘Can swim when inclined, but adults
seldom do so, though they not infrequently settle on the water for
a few moments to bathe’. It made no mention of roosting on water.
Julian C . Rolls
Tringa, 31 Fleetwood Close , Neston, Corsham , Wiltshire SN13 gTF
HRobin killing Robin At 08.32 hours GMT on 1 8th November
1972, a fine frosty morning, I looked out of a first-floor window
itinto the courtyard of my Oxfordshire house and saw two Robins
:Erithacus rubecula struggling with each other close to the bird-bath in
i :he centre of the court ; a female Blackbird Turdus merula and a female
! House Sparrow Passer domesticus were watching in the immediate
vicinity. One Robin was on the other’s back, flicking its wings to
maintain balance, in a travesty of the mounting posture; the bird
underneath had its wings spread. Until about 08.50 the struggle
;ontinued, both Robins moving round the base of the cement pillar
! iupporting the bird-bath; the top bird moved round the lower one,
« 'etaining its grip on the head or pecking at it, each blow being
delivered with a flick of the wings, especially the left one, from a
•ange of about a centimetre. The open eye of the lower bird was
requently visible and I expected it to make an attempt to free itself
it any moment. But its wing and tail movements became feeble, and
he top bird succeeded in getting it on its back, continuing the pecks
ind once appearing to work its mandibles, as though eating some-
hing. After about 08.55 the victim’s movements ceased and the top
fird kept looking up from its attacks, like a bird of prey on a kill.
At 08.59 the victor suddenly flew out of the courtyard, which
las only one entrance. I ran down to look at the victim before a cat
:ould claim it and, as I opened our door into the court, a Robin
lew in from the archway. The dead bird was pecked round the eyes,
vhere there was a little blood, but otherwise there were no obvious
vounds.
During the struggle House Sparrows several times landed close to
.
122
Notes
the Robins and came within a few centimetres (at one time there
were two males and a female in the vicinity) ; once a Blue Tit Pams
caeruleus came close; several times a Dunnock Pmnella modularis,
which came nearest of all, just hopped round the combatants; and
once two Dunnocks appeared. At about 08.35 a third Robin flew
down to land on the sill of the bird-bath, looked down at the others,
flew to a flower-bed on the south side of the court for a few seconds
and then away.
I put the dead Robin breast-up on the bird-bath sill; at 09.18,
when I went to look at it again, there were loud ‘ticks’ and a Robin
flew away from the courtyard’s entrance arch where it had evidently
been watching. At 09.24 a Robin was pecking at the head of the
dead bird in situ. At 09.33 a Robin, after being disturbed several
times, entered the courtyard again, perched on a plant stem in one of
the flower-beds along the wall, sang several short phrases and re-
turned to the attack. These attacks continued intermittently for an
hour or more, with song phrases and ‘tick’ calls in between.
For several months a Robin with a loud ‘tick’ had ‘ruled’ the
area outside the entrance and, evidently, the courtyard as well.
I can only suppose that the intruder, attacked after entering the
court, had become confused almost as if in a room and was at a
disadvantage from the start of the fight, which I did not see; nor do
I know for how long it had been going on before 08.32. I did not feel
able to leave my stance to get a tape-recorder and failed to note
points of detail, for example how the top Robin managed to keep the
other down while moving round it. I reported the incident to the late
Dr David Lack, author of The Life of the Robin (1943), who com-
mented: ‘How extraordinary; hardly anyone, I never, has seen one
Robin kill another’. Unfortunately the corpse disappeared during
the morning and I was unable to examine it in detail.
Bruce Campbell
Hordley, Woodstock, Oxford 0x7 iep
High incidence of plumage abnormalities in London birds
While birdwatching in London parks, I have gained the impression
that plumage abnormalities are commoner there than in rural
areas. I tested this by making counts of certain species in August
1971, only birds seen very well at close range being counted. Counts
were made in Green Park, St James’s Park, Hyde Park, Regent’s
Park and Trafalgar Square, London, and for comparison in sub-
urban parts of Clapham, Balham and Streatham, and rural areas
in Surrey and near Sandwich, Kent. The results of these counts,
summarised in table 1, show that plumage abnormalities, parti-
cularly lack of melanin in some of the feathers usually melanised,
were commoner in the urban populations studied.
Ilyenko (i960) found that ‘albinism’ was characteristic of birds
r
:j •
|l
j':
jl
\\
iii
Notes
123
[, 1. Frequency of plumage abnormalities in counts of four species in urban,
suburban and rural areas
>n counts made in central London (urban), Clapham, Balham and Streatham (suburban),
ju rrey and Kent (rural), in August 1971. ‘Partly albinistic’ individuals lacked some (not all)
n from the plumage only (see below). The ‘melanistic’ birds listed may have been
ured by urban soot and grime, but a genetic basis for their darkness seems more likely,
as birds of intermediate darkness were not seen
Area
TOTAL
Normal
‘Partly
albinistic’
Mela-
nistic
Dilute
Percent
Abnormal
w
>igeon
Urban
320
316
I
3
-
i-3
a
: 1 palumbus
Suburban
260
259
-
I
-
0.4
;»
Rural
432
432
-
—
—
0
1 ird
Urban
170
167
3
-
-
1.8
•71
merul a
Suburban
1 7 1
169
2
-
-
1.2
■'
juvenile)
Rural
156
156
-
-
-
0
St
g
Urban
435
429
6
-
-
1.4
vulgaris
Suburban
508
501
7
-
-
«-4
a
, juvenile)
Rural
588
587
1
-
-
0.2
tC
' Sparrow
Urban
i»537
'.489
40
5
3
3-'
h
a iomesticus
Suburban
632
624
7
-
I
«-3
(a
, juvenile)
Rural
447
446
I
-
-
0.2
in cities and heavily populated districts in Russia. He based his
conclusions on examination of 3,605 House Sparrows Passer dome-
sticus and 267 Tree Sparrows P. montanus collected in Moscow and
I tthe rural area of Chashnikov. No ‘complete albinos’ were found,
but ‘partial albinos’ accounted for 1.8% of the House Sparrows and
1.7% of the Tree Sparrows from Moscow, compared with none of
either species in the Chashnikov samples.
Harrison (1963) redefined terms for certain abnormalities in
melanin pigmentation. His distinction between albinism (lack of all
melanin pigmentation) and leucism (lack of all melanin pigments
from feathers, but with other parts of the body normally melanised)
creates terminological difficulties for those individuals which lack
the usual melanin in some feathers but are otherwise normally
coloured. These latter are usually referred to as ‘partial albinos’ in
the literature, but, as they have normally coloured bare parts,
‘partly leucistic’ seems more consistent with Harrison’s definitions.
Discarding the term ‘leucism’ entirely may be the simplest solution,
otherwise it seems best to reserve the terms ‘albinism’ and ‘leucism’
for the extremes of melanin deficiency defined by Harrison, and to
refer to partly affected individuals as ‘lacking some plumage
melanin’.
There has been considerable debate on the causes of melanin
deficiency, though there is ample evidence that it is often under
124
Notes
genetic control. Even when partial or complete melanin deficiency
appears to be related to the effects of senility or dietary deficiencies
on melanin metabolism, it is apparent that a measure of genetic
involvement exists, as in all cellular metabolism. Voitkevich (1966)
summarised the abundant evidence that inadequacies of nutrition
affect melanin pigmentation less than lipochrome pigmentation
(lipochromes include carotenoids and related lipoid pigments). As
no abnormalities in lipochrome pigmentation were recorded in the
species listed in table 1 (such as could occur in bare-part colours of
Blackbirds Tardus merula and Starlings Sturnus vulgaris, and breast
colour in Woodpigeons Columba palumbus, it seems that the plumage
abnormalities are more likely to be of direct genetic origin than
caused by diet.
Mallards Anas platyrhynchos and Feral Pigeons or Rock Doves
C. livia are polymorphic in towns, but wild Mallard populations
are not polymorphic in rural areas, and wild-living Rock Dove
populations unaffected by escaped domestic birds are less poly-
morphic than the urban Feral Pigeons with which they are con-
specific. Although these urban polymorphisms were originally
caused by the variety of genetic origins of the captive ancestors of
the present-day feral populations, the maintenance of the poly-
morphisms must presumably be due to selection.
The frequency of partial melanin deficiencies in Fondon bird
populations (table 1), if under direct genetic control, is too high to
be due to recurrent mutation alone, even allowing for the possible
effects of mimic genes (Ford 1964). Thus they may be true poly-
morphisms, like those of Mallards and Feral Pigeons. Even if
inadequacies of diet are the proximate cause of the observed
abnormalities, it could be that these are expressed phenotypically
only because of an underlying greater variability in the genes
controlling metabolism of melanins.
It may be speculated that a high incidence of polymorphism in
urban bird populations is a result of selection favouring variability
in the constantly changing and comparatively new environments
provided by cities, which may prevent single well-adapted forms
from emerging. D. T. Holyoak
School of Biological Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, Brighton,
Sussex bn 1 9QG
REFERENCES
Ford, E. B. 1964. Ecological Genetics. London and New York.
Harrison, C. J. O. 1963. ‘Grey and fawn variant plumages’. Bird Study, 10: 219-
233-
Ilyenko, A. I. i960. ‘O yavlenii al’binizma sredi vorob’ cv Moskvy’. In Okhrana
Priredy i Ozelenenie. Moscow.
Voitkevich, A. A. 1966. The Feathers and Plumage of Birds. London.
IReviews
The Animal in its World. Explorations of an Ethologist 1932-
11972. By Niko Tinbergen. Allen & Unwin, Hemel Hempstead,
11973. Vol. 1: 343 pages, 31 photographs, 100 text-figures;
^6.35. Vol. 2: 231 pages, 8 photographs, 44 text-figures; £5.25.
In recent years, a number of books have appeared collecting to-
gether previously published scientific papers by well-known investi-
gators of animal behaviour, including those of Konrad Lorenz.
This selection of 18 papers by Niko Tinbergen is particularly
welcome; his work — with its emphasis on the animal in its environ-
ment and insistence on the importance of observation and descrip-
tion as well as experimentation — has had more influence on and
^greater appeal to ornithologists in this country than that of any other
ethologist.
The papers are grouped in four sections, each introduced by
the author. Sections 1 (observational and interpretative studies)
and 2 (field experiments) come in volume 1, sections 3 (laboratory
•experiments) and 4 (general papers) in volume 2. Most appeared
originally in specialist journals and seven have been translated
from German. Although there might be initial disappointment at
the absence of some expected and historically valuable contributions,
‘Professor Tinbergen amply justifies his choice and the collection has
a remarkable uniformity, with its growing emphasis over the years
on the study of the survival value of behaviour and its application
to an understanding of some of the unique features of the behaviour
of Man himself.
Five papers deal specifically with birds. The earliest is the classic
study on the gaping responses of nestling Blackbirds and Song
Thrushes (1939). None of the famous single species studies is
represented, such as that on the Snow Bunting, though, of course,
The Herring Gull's World (1953) is still in print; instead we are
given the long, comparative study of gull behaviour (1959). Three
papers of 1962-63 treat various aspects of eggshell removal by the
Black-headed Gull, with special emphasis on the selection pressure
of predation, and these are supplemented by two further experi-
mental studies on food-hoarding by the Red Fox (1965) and the
survival value of spacing-out (1967). Four papers deal with the
author’s famous studies on orientation and courtship in certain
insects (1932-38, 1942), while a fifth examines the defensive role of
the spines of sticklebacks against fish predators (1957). Finally
come the six general papers, mostly recent, chosen to give an assess-
ment of the present status of both pure and applied ethology, all
drawing to a greater or lesser extent on examples from bird be-
125
126
Reviews
haviour, particularly of gulls. The first two discuss behaviour and
natural selection (1965) and appeasement signals (1959). The next
outlines the development of ethology (1969) and paves the way
to the last three on ethology and Man : the search for animal roots
in human behaviour (1964), early childhood autism (1972), and
functional ethology and the human sciences (1972). Again, one
might regret the complete exclusion of reviews written in the years
1936-48, but these were integrated into Professor Tinbergen’s book
The Study of Instinct (1951, recently reprinted) which gives the
necessary historical perspective.
The work is mostly well produced, but there are some unsatis-
factory publication features. For instance, there are no indexes.
The two volumes (the combined price of which may place them
beyond the pockets of the students for which the collection was
partly intended) could well have been combined, thus removing
the irritation of having the same foreword (by Sir Peter Medawar)
in both but Professor Tinbergen’s own general introduction only
in the first. In spite of these criticisms, the book can be highly
recommended to all ornithologists interested in animal behaviour.
It stands as its own tribute to Niko Tinbergen on the eve of his
retirement. K. E. L. Simmons
Pedigree: Words from Nature. By Stephen Potter and
Laurens Sargent. New Naturalist series, Collins, London,
I973- 322 pages; £3.15.
This original and stimulating work, arising from the peculiar
scholarly pastimes of James Fisher and Stephen Potter, through
whose deaths we are, in Donne’s phrase, all diminished, has been
excellently completed by the Reverend Laurens Sargent. Although
the primary interest of all three in natural history has been orni-
thological, this work ranges very widely over the animal and plant
kingdoms, where it would not be appropriate for this review to
follow.
Evidence of place-names can assist in indicating former distribu-
tion. A good example is the occurrence in two-thirds of English
counties of place-names founded on the Crane. The authors argue
plausibly that modern confusion among the ignorant between
‘Crane’ and ‘Heron’ could hardly have existed in the Middle Ages,
and that Cranes were actually then as widespread as the place-
names indicate, though, unlike Herons, not so universal as to be
without value for purposes of distribution. Unfortunately the
comparable problem whether the name ‘Goshawk’ was used in
confusion for the Peregrine is not discussed, and there is also a disap-
pointing failure to come to grips with the significance of ‘woodwale’
which is baldly stated in a footnote to be the Golden Oriole, despite
Reviews 127
he Oxford English Dictionary caution that it may also denote the
ireen Woodpecker.
It is interesting to note that in both the English and scientific
iam.es there is an ancient confusion between doves ( Columba ) and
! livers (formerly Colymbus). It is tantalising also to find that the
derivation of ‘isabelline’ — somewhat oddly described as a ‘shade of
rey’ — from Queen Isabella’s alleged vow not to change her shift
iefore Granada was captured from the Moors is classed as doubtful,
without explanation.
As international communication about birds increases, and fami-
1 Parity with the dead classical languages declines, many choices and
I ecisions have to be made about the correct use of English names
Dr birds. Awareness of the fascinating etymological background and
■ elationships so agreeably discussed in this book is therefore not
merely a diversion or relaxation but an important element in
ccurate and scholarly use of terms. It opens the way to a work,
/hich may perhaps some day follow, treating systematically the
ntire range of English bird names in use in different English-speak-
lg lands, and the changes which they continue to undergo, in the
{fort to evolve out of a mixed bag of loose or misleading epithets a
Dlerably scientific and convenient set of identifying terms for all
oecies. E. M. Nicholson
setters
Vroof of breeding of Shore Larks As many other readers must
ave been, I was very interested in the paper by A. Watson on
hore Larks Eremophila alpestris in Scotland in summer {Brit. Birds,
'6: 505-508). But why the caution in the title: ‘ possibly breeding’?
i .n adult of a species known to feed its young directly and seen
.arrying a beakful of food was accepted as ‘proof of breeding’ for
le Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland, quite apart from the
ther evidence marshalled by Mr Watson. If this is not now con-
dered to provide adequate proof, how many Atlas ‘FY’ records
iand to be demoted ? Bruce Campbell
rordley, Woodstock, Oxford 0x7 iep
The reason why we are cautious in not claiming a definite record
f breeding is that we did not get a good view of young, which to
5 would have been proof. To accept the sight of an adult carrying
>od, or other such circumstantial evidence, as proof rather than
kelihood of breeding may be suitable for certain purposes, but we
a not think it sufficient for a first British breeding record.
A. Watson Sr, Adam Watson and N. Picozzi
rdny Arms Hotel, Newburgh, Aberdeenshire
News and comment Robert Hudson
Eiders and oil pollution Most of our wildfowl live inland or on the quieter
estuaries, where they are not particularly vulnerable to pollution. The sea
ducks have one particularly weak spot, a tendency to gather and feed around
sewage and distillery outfalls, either on waste matter or the filter-feeding shellfish
that also make use of it. The most famous example is the Edinburgh sewer at
Seafield, where up to 30,000 Scaup gather in winter just downstream from the
new Cramond North Sea oil terminal ; but recurrent trouble also occurs at outfalls
at Invergordon on the Moray Firth (where some 200 out of 278 Mute Swans were
oiled this February), among other places. Eiders are also vulnerable where
they gather in large flocks in sheltered places in winter; some 2,000 were killed in
the Tank Duchess disaster off the mouth of the Tay in the spring of 1968, and if it
had occurred a little earlier there could have been ten times as many; while over
half the 600 Eiders in Loch Indaal, Islay, were killed by an oil leak in October 1969
(Scot. Birds, 5: 189-196; 6: 149-153)- The latest threats to them come from two of
the oil development sites. Up to 2,000 Eiders have been reported this winter around
Drumbuie in Loch Carron, Ross-shire (also an important breeding area), pre-
sumably a large part of the population of that part of the Hebrides sheltering from
the weather; while up to 4,000 have been reported between Unst, Fetlar and Yell in
northern Shetland, some two-thirds of the known population in those islands.
While the occurrence of an Eider concentration in Loch Carron was pointed out
when the proposal to locate oil platform construction sites there was announced,
it is notable that there is no mention of them or their vulnerability to oil in the
environmental impact study prepared for the site by Sphere Consultants; fortu-
nately the Nature Conservancy Council is now investigating the situation. While
the occurrence of flocks of Eiders is not necessarily sufficient cause for holding up
development, ornithologists will doubtless wish to be assured that very thorough
measures are taken to avoid accidental pollution in areas where bird flocks feeding
in narrow channels with strong tidal currents are likely to be entirely wiped out by
any passing slick. (Contributed by Dr W. R. P. Bourne.)
World’s largest national park Denmark is planning to create a North-east
Greenland National Park, which will be established in the near future when
the Greenland Protection Act is passed by the Danish Parliament; this is ex-
pected to be a formality, since agreement has already been reached with the
Greenland Council at Godthab. This national park will cover about one-third
of Greenland, the virtually uninhabited region between Petermann Glacier in
the north-west and King Oscar Fjord in the south-east; including inland ice
and surrounding seas, the total area is about 700,000 sq. km. Hitherto, the world’s
largest national park has been Wood Buffalo Park in Canada, which is 44,800
sq. km. North-east Greenland is a major breeding area for the Polar Bear and
Atlantic Walrus. Parts of the region are well vegetated (by arctic standards)
and contain good habitats for the lemmings, Arctic Hare, Ermine, Arctic Fox,
and the now-localised Musk Ox. The varied bird life includes, as breeding species,
such local or spectacular ones as Pink-footed and Barnacle Geese, Gyrfalcon and
Snowy Owl.
New bird club for Shetland A new county ornithological society came into
being last December, when the Shetland Bird Club was inaugurated at a meeting
held in Lerwick. The Club will take over the publication of the Shetland Bird
Report (hitherto produced under private initiative), support bird conservation
in the islands, organise wildfowl counts, and encourage residents and visitors
128
News and comment
129
.0 look at breeding birds as well as migrants. 1974 breeding surveys are planned
or the Red-throated Diver, and Reed and Corn Buntings, the Shetland status
of the latter two being virtually unknown. New members will be welcomed ;
■ he annual subscription is £1, and the secretary is Iain Robertson, West Isle,
■> Skerries, Shetland. Also, the Club is anxious to get co-operation from the numerous
birdwatchers who visit Shetland every year, for many do not submit records,
land doubtless many data on breeding birds and migrants are lost; such records
i'vill be gratefully received by Bobby Tulloch, Reafirth, Mid Yell, Shetland.
ivVe wish every success to the youngest and northernmost bird club in Britain.
R.-ISPB staff moves Colin Bibby has for the last three years organised the Beached
iircl Survey from the headquarters of the Royal Society for the Protection of
lirds at Sandy; but he has now returned to fieldwork. In January he began a
three-year study of the Dartford Warbler, based on the Isle of Purbeck, Dorset.
I One of the chief aims of this research is to make a close study of this scarce warbler’s
l eeding habits, and so identify the food plants and winter conditions most needed
l , or survival. It has been heavy mortality in severe winters, with snow and ice cover,
hat has caused recurrent population crashes in the small, restricted English
copulation. With knowledge, it may be feasible to make artificial provision for
he species’ needs in such conditions. Meanwhile, the RSPB’s Beached Bird Survey
. dll be continued by Miss Clare Lloyd, a former Edward Grey Institute researcher
' dio has studied seabirds (especially the Razorbill) on Skokholm, Pembrokeshire.
Uirds of the Persian Gulf The first comprehensive avifaunal publication for
he entire Persian Gulf is currently being prepared by Major M. D. Gallagher,
iVho has had several protracted tours of duty in the region. It is intended that this
work will bring together all bird records, published and unpublished, for the
’ ’ersian Gulf, its coasts and islands, including the Arabian states from Oman to
wuwait; it will provide a working distributional list for use by the increasing
n umbers of birdwatchers visiting the region. Anybody with unpublished data
1 1 invited by Major Gallagher to contact him c/o Lloyds Bank Ltd, 6 Pall Mall,
.ondon swiy 5NH.
iloubara Bustard research cancelled In an earlier ‘News and comment’
Brit. Birds , 66: 236) I mentioned an Houbara Bustard research project, involving
aptivc breeding, to be conducted in Pakistan by W. A. Newlands. However, a
ote in the latest I. U. C. N. Bulletin (February 1974) relates that this project has
iad to be cancelled. Protracted delays in expected financial support from the
heikh of Abu Dhabi, plus continuing unsettled conditions in the area, are the
reasons given for abandoning the project.
ufoted in passing . . . An intriguing advertisement in the bulletin of an African
atural history society (which shall be nameless) : ‘The following journals are being
ffered for sale by a member who is leaving for the benefit of the Society . . .’ How
ublic-spirited !
I '.eprieve for Foulness? Since 1971 the Conservatives have held steadfastly to
teir plans for a Maplin International Airport, while both the Labour and
iberal parties are pledged to scrap the project and the Scottish and Welsh
^ Nationalists are unlikely to defend it. Thus, with the formation of a Labour
linority government and their probable support on this issue by the Liberals
nd nationalists, there is now reason to hope that Foulness and its Brent Geese
ill be safe, at least for the lifetime of the present Parliament. This provides a
1 reathing space in which aviation requirements and conservation priorities
1 30 News and comment
can be reassessed in the light of recent developments in the fuel oil and general
financial situations.
Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds
Recent reports — December D. A. Christie
These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
The extremely cold spell which set in at the end of November lasted only until
3rd/4th December, after when the rest of the month was mild. A series of depres-
sions crossed the country from the Atlantic, bringing wet, windy conditions to
most areas of Britain, and during the last week a deep depression west of Iceland
produced gales in the Atlantic and western Britain, conditions which were to
characterise the first six weeks of 1974.
SEABIRDS
On 8th a juvenile diver found dead at Hornsea (Yorkshire) was identified as a
White-billed Gavia adamsii. A paper on the identification of this difficult species,
with a full review of the British records, will be published in this journal during
1974. At Seaton Sluice (Northumberland) two Gannets Sula bassana flew north on
23rd and nine on 30th, and on the latter date one was seen off Foreness Point
(Kent). About eight Arctic Skuas Stercorarius parasiticus were reported from
Northumberland, Kent, Hampshire and Co. Antrim ; two Pomarine S. pomarinus
were at Allhallows (Kent) on 8th, while at Jaonneuse Point (Guernsey) a Great
Skua S. skua flew west on 8th and a Manx Shearwater Puffinus puffinus did likewise
on 15th. A Great Shearwater P. gravis settled on the sea at Benacre Ness
(Suffolk) on 20th. On 15th an unidentified petrel moved west at Cley (Norfolk),
and on 27th a Storm Petrel Hydrobates pelagicus was seen far inland flying beside
the ai near Carlton on Trent (Nottinghamshire). Stormy weather resulted in other
seabirds being driven inland : a Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis was seen flying low
north-east at Earlham, Norwich (Norfolk), on 3rd, and in Northamptonshire
singles turned up at Thrapston gravel pits on 24th and Sywell Reservoir on
27th, but more remarkable was a flock of 16 which arrived at Tring Reservoirs
(Hertfordshire) about nth, three remaining until 19th and one to 27th.
An adult Ring-billed Gull Larus delawarensis which arrived at Blackpill (Gla-
morgan) on 5th and was still present in March 1974 was considered to be the one
recorded there in March 1973, the first ever in Britain and Ireland (see Brit. Birds,
66: 509-512). There were three inland reports of Glaucous Gulls L. hyperboreus
in England and a number of coastal sightings, while single Iceland Gulls L.
glaucoides were at Blackpill on 5th and 6th, at Steart (Somerset) on 23rd, and at
New Brighton (Cheshire) all month for the 18th successive winter. Only three
new Mediterranean Gulls L. melanocephalus were notified to us, singles at Pagham
Harbour (Sussex) on 1st, at Benacre on 13th and at Warsash (Hampshire)
on 29th, while the usual two were at Blackpill all month. Lastly, an Ivory Gull
Pagophila eburnea stayed in Dunnet Bay (Caithness) from 18th to 23rd.
SPOONBILL AND WILDFOWL
An immature Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia which appeared on the River Lynher
(Cornwall) during the month was presumably the bird recorded on the Tavy
(Devon) on 3rd November (Brit. Birds, 67: 85).
Birds showing the characters of drake Green-winged Teal Anas crecca carolinensis
I llecent reports — December 131
ere identified at Eynhallow (Orkney) on 2nd November, at Longman Bay
I 1 Inverness-shire) on 12th December and at Hurworth Burn Reservoir (Co.
•urham) from 23rd until at least the middle ofjanuary 1974; and a drake Ameri-
*an Wlgeon A. americana was reported on Seal Sands, Teesmouth (also Co.
•urham) on 4th. A count on the River Mersey during 8th-gth revealed a total of
5,000 ducks, including 14,700 Teal, 14,800 Pintail A. acuta and 7,700 Wigeon
I . penelope, and 27,500 Wigeon were counted on the Ouse Washes (Cambridgeshire/
, orfolk) in mid-month, 2,000 fewer than in December 1972, which itself was a
ither low total (Brit. Birds, 66:177). There were 70 Long-tailed Ducks Clangula
lemalis off Ross (Northumberland) during December and this mainly maritime
oecies continued to be reported at reservoirs well inland, in Derbyshire, Essex,
Middlesex, Hertfordshire, and Somerset (two). An Eider Somateria mollissima
ith an injured leg was found at Adbaston (Staffordshire) early in the month and
: niter died. The mild weather meant that numbers of Smew Mergus albellus were
jw all winter, a total of less than 40 being reported in December from Northum-
berland, Lancashire, Leicestershire/Rutland, Northamptonshire, Buckingham-
lire, Middlesex, Essex, Kent, Surrey, Hampshire and Somerset; the highest
umbers were, as usual, on the London reservoirs, including up to six at Brent
i nd Staines and five at Kcmpton Park. On the other hand, exceptional numbers
' ) f Goosanders M. merganser were present at some places, an unprecedented 235
it Eye Brook Reservoir (Leicestershire/Rutland) on 29th (still 170 on 31st); 62
it Chew Valley Lake (Somerset) and 30 at Staunton Harold (Derbyshire) in
( ie second half of the month, both being among the largest flocks ever recorded
I u those localities; and up to 96 on King George VI Reservoir (Middlesex) in
1 ite December.
From 9th a Lesser Whitefront Anser erythropus was present at Slimbridge
(Gloucestershire) with the wintering flock of White-fronted Geese A. albifrons,
hich numbered about 2,500 on 30th. The Bean Geese A. f abatis in east Norfolk
" “ached a total of 112 on 21st, the highest number there since February 1959;
Ivsewhere they were found at five places, the most being nine at Lindisfarne
Northumberland) on 3rd with 1,500 pale-bellied Geese Brant bemicla hrota.
Lark-bellied Brents B. b. bemicla were more numerous than usual on the south
oast: record counts were made of 6,075 ‘n Langstone Harbour (Hampshire)
•in 9th and 6,000 in Chichester Harbour (Hampshire/Sussex) towards the end
i I f the month; in the Swale estuary (Kent) there were 1,020 on 6th. The Ouse
■ (/ashes total of 743 Bewick’s Swans Cygnus bewickii on 14th was 65% up on
ud-December 1972, though the 300 at Slimbridge at the end of the month
towed no change (Brit. Birds, 66: 78). Sixty-seven Whooper Swans C. cygnus
• • t Kirkby Thore on 22nd was an abnormally high number for Westmorland, and a
record 59 were counted on Belmont and Rivington Reservoirs (Lancashire).
APTORS AND WADERS
'here were continuing reports of Rough-legged Buzzards Buteo lagopus, again
lainly from the east coast and with three together in one area in Kent. Rarer
irds of prey were a Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus on Tiree (Argyll) from 27th to
1st and a Red Kite Milvus milvus on Alderney from 30th until 3rd January.
Two vagrant waders were reported during the month, a Short-billed Do-
■dtcher Limnodromus griseus at Stanpit (Hampshire) on 2nd and one, perhaps two,
Mender-billed Curlews Numenius tenuirostris at Harty (Kent) on 24th. The former
an extreme rarity with only six British records and none since 1965; and the
itter would, if accepted, constitute the first British and Irish record of this species,
hich breeds in western Siberia and migrates south-westwards to winter in Iraq,
le eastern Mediterranean and north-west Africa.
In the north-west, Snipe Gallinago gallinago reached a peak of some 3,000 at
lartin Mere (Lancashire), w-hile on 23rd 1,150 Black-tailed Godwits Limosa
132
Recent reports — December
limosa were counted on wintering grounds on the Dee estuary (Cheshire) ; wintering
waders in Devon included 31 Greenshanks Tringa nebularia (21 on the Exe) and
94 Avocets Recurvirostra avosetta (79 on the Tamar and Tavy). Little Stints
Calidris minuta were present in small numbers in the Bann estuary (Co. London-
derry), at Marshside on the Ribble (Lancashire), at Chew Valley Lake, in the
Hayle and Camel estuaries (both Cornwall), at Dibden Bay (Hampshire), and in
north Kent at Cliffe, Kingsnorth and Sandwich Bay. Very high numbers of Dunlin
C. alpina were recorded inland in Somerset, 765 at Chew Valley Lake on 17th
December and later 1,000 on Wet Moor on 3rd February, while on 1st December
a Purple Sandpiper C. maritima, normally very much a coastal bird in winter,
turned up well inland at Egginton gravel pits (Derbyshire) and later beside the
River Trent. Single Grey Phalaropes Phalaropus fulicarius were found at King
George VI Reservoir on 1st, at St Mary’s Island (Northumberland) on 1st and
(possibly the same bird) close by at Seaton Sluice on 7th, at Frodsham (Cheshire)
on 8th, and at Cley on 15th.
NEAR-PASSERINES AND PASSERINES
The mild weather favoured the few summer visitors and migrants still present in
Britain in December. On 1st a House Martin Delichon urbica was seen at Penzance
(Cornwall), and a Hoopoe Upupa epops which had stayed J.n the Fleet area of
Hampshire since the summer was last seen during the fifst week of the month.
In Kent there was a Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur at Cuxton on 9th, a White
Wagtail Motacilla a. alba was reported at Sevenoaks on 19th and 28th, and a
Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca was watched at Margate on 9th January.
Chi£fchafFs Phylloscopus collybita and Blackcaps S. atricapilla were, as usual,
reported in very small numbers from widespread localities. The most unusual
reports concerned a Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor at Sutton Coldfield (War-
wickshire) on 1st and a female Serin Serinus serinus at Collier Street, Marden
(Kent), on 9th.
Small numbers of Shore Larks Eremophila alpestris were present on the east
coast, 30-40 feeding daily on the Scrape at Minsmere; elsewhere two were at
Waterloo (Lancashire) for the first week and one was at Portland Bill (Dorset)
on 28th, while inland one stayed at Theale gravel pits (Berkshire) from 18th
to 22nd. The largest flocks of Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis reported were
250 at Holme (Norfolk) from 29th and 140 at Sandwich Bay on 15th. In the
west there were singles at three places in Somerset, and the species was described
as widespread on the Lancashire coast, with 32 at Waterloo during the month;
one was at Pulias (Guernsey) on 4th. The few inland records were of singles
except for an unusual series of reports in the Pennines and Border Hills, involving
a party of about twelve near Edale Head on Kinder (Derbyshire) on 31st and,
in Northumberland, seven at Hedgehope on 9th, 36 at Threestone Burn on 23rd
and 25 on The Cheviot on 28th. Only five reports of Lapland Buntings Calcarius
lapponicus were received: singles in Northumberland at Seahouses on 2nd, at
Nafferton (inland) on 3rd, and at Ross on 12th; and parties in Kent at Shellness
(eleven on 1st and one on 22nd) and Sandwich Bay (up to nine). Five hundred
Twites Acanthis flavirostris at Cliffe on 2nd was the largest flock notified to us,
and at Dibden Bay unusually large numbers had built up to a maximum of
145 by 8th.
Finally, a small influx of Waxwings Bombycilla garrulus was noted during the
month. On 2nd one was at Sulham, Reading (Berkshire), one at Newark (Notting-
hamshire), three at Sutton Coldfield and about 50 between Cley and Holt; later
there were singles at Barnstaple (Devon) and Northampton on 8th and 9th, at
Graveney (Kent) on 1 ith, at Bletchley (Buckinghamshire) on 18th, and at Whitley
Bay and Stocksfield (both Northumberland) on 24th, three at Mickleover (Derby-
shire) on 26th and three at Sandwich Bay and one at Mitcham (Surrey) on 29th.
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Volume 67 Number 3 March 1974
89 The migration of the Gannet: a reassessment of British and Irish
ringing data Sir A. Landsborough Thomson
104 The breeding behaviour and biology of the Moorhen N. A. Wood
(part 1)
116 The lek of the Black Grouse Dr Ingemar Hjorth Plates 13-20
Notes
120 Iris colour of juvenile Night Herons P. J. Belman
120 Common Terns roosting on water Julian C. Rolls
121 Robin killing Robin Dr Bruce Campbell
122 High incidence of plumage abnormalities in London birds D. T.
Holyoak
Reviews
125 The Animal in its World. Explorations of an Ethologist 1932-1972
by Niko Tinbergen Dr K. E. L. Simmons
126 Pedigree: Words from Nature by Stephen Potter and Laurens
Sargent E. M. Nicholson
Letters
127 Proof of breeding of Shore Larks Dr Bruce Campbell ; and A.
Watson Sr, Dr Adam Watson and N. Picozzi
128 News and comment Robert Hudson
130 Recent reports— December D. A. Christie
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Volume 67 Number 4 April 1974
The upperwing pattern of adult Common
and Arctic Terns
R. A. Hume and P. J. Grant
Plates 21-24
The separation of adult Common Terns Sterna hirundo and Arctic
Perns S. paradisaea in the field is notoriously difficult. Several
differences have been described previously and are widely known :
1 1 :ompared with the Common Tern, the Arctic has relatively
1 ^shorter legs, greyer underparts, shorter and finer bill (which
s all dark red, rather than orange-red to scarlet with a black
| titip), and longer tail-streamers. To the trained ear some calls are
diagnostic. Perhaps the most useful plumage mark in the British
I iterature was first described by Richardson (1953): in the Arctic’s
spread wing all the flight-feathers (except at the tips of the primaries)
are translucent when viewed directly from below against the light,
whereas in the Common the translucent area is restricted to the
nnermost primaries, the rest appearing darker and opaque.
The Arctic is slightly smaller and more lightly built, and some
authors, for example Jacobsen (1961) and Vande Weghe (1966),
save stressed its rounder head. Vande Weghe combined this feature
■with the Arctic’s shorter bill and longer tail to give a different
•atio in the flying bird between the length in front of the wings and
he length behind the wings: he claimed that this was 1 to 2. 5-3.0
n the Arctic as against 1 to 1. 5-2.0 in the Common, though measure-
nents of many photographs by P. F. Bonham (in lift.) give smaller
•atios of 1 to 1. 8-2. 2 and 1 to 1.3-1. 7 respectively.
Juveniles share many of these differences (where they do not
ipply exclusively to adult characters) and have additional diag-
lostic features which tend to make them more easily separable than
idults (Grant and Scott 1969).
133
*34
Upperwing of Common and Arctic Terns
Unfortunately all these distinctions often require ideal viewing
conditions at close range for them to be usable. Jacobsen (1961)
described and illustrated a further field-character that seems to
have been overlooked by subsequent authors, and which was also
noted by RAH while watching both species in Staffordshire and
Shetland during 1973. In adult Arctic Terns the grey colour of
the upperside of the primaries appears clean and uniform, whereas
in Common Terns the outer five to seven primaries (including the
very short first) are darker than the remainder, and on the inner-
most of these in particular there is often a dark wedge extending
forward from the rear edge of the wing. This is illustrated in
fig. 1 and can be clearly seen in plates 21-24 (and also in the colour
photographs on page 1050 of Birds of the World, volume 4, part 2).
Once familiar with the appearance of this dark wedge it becomes
a most useful field mark and can be picked out at surprisingly
long range, in ideal conditions up to a kilometre. It has the addi-
tional advantage of being visible on birds in normal flight seen
from the side (for example, while on migration over the sea)
when the differences of underwing translucency are virtually
impossible to detect. If the dark wedge is seen then the bird is
certainly a Common Tern; in some individuals in adverse con-
ditions, however, this mark is not always obvious, and identification
as Arctic is therefore inadvisable unless the bird is close enough to
ensure that the primaries are uniform, or other features confirm
identification.
A study of museum skins and other references by PJG explained
the reasons for this difference in the upperwing pattern. Common
Terns (nominate race considered only) have an arrested moult of
their primaries, the timing and extent of which are rather variable
but broadly fit the following pattern. From August to October
the inner four to six primaries are renewed while the birds are
still within their breeding range. The moult is then halted while
they migrate, and is resumed in their winter quarters. In spring,
just prior to the northwards migration, the inner four to six primaries
are moulted again (this moult usually commences before the renewal
of the outer primaries is complete), so that the inner primaries
are moulted twice a year and the outer ones only once. Thus,
for the whole time that Common Terns are in their northern
breeding range, the outer five to seven primaries are several
months older than the adjacent inner ones. The effect of wear on
the primaries of Sterna terns has been described previously (for
example, in Scott and Grant 1969) : the pale grey bloom (radii) on
the primaries is steadily lost, revealing progressively more of the
blackish base colour (rami). This causes a contrast between the
older (thus darker) outer primaries and the fresher (paler) inner
J i. Upper, Common
Sterna hirundo ; lower,
t c Tern S. paradisaea,
3 ing upperwings of
adults (see text)
<?0H- 1173
136 Upperwing of Common and Arctic Terns
ones. In Arctic Terns a complete primary moult takes place in
winter quarters: because there is little age difference between
adjacent feathers, the primaries appear uniform in colour. It should
be stressed that these differences are valid only for adults out-
side their wintering grounds. It is also worth bearing in mind from
the foregoing that any adult ‘Commie’ tern showing active wing
moult late in the autumn (as in plate 24b) is a Common.
Finally, although the Roseate Tern S. dougallii does not normally
present an identification problem in adult plumage, it seems worth
describing its upperwing pattern for the sake of completeness.
The upperwing is generally much whiter than that of either the
Common or Arctic, and like the Common it has an arrested moult,
though usually only the outer three to five primaries are retained.
Thus the dark area on the outer wing contrasts even more with the
inner primaries but is much smaller, often giving the appearance in
the field of a blackish leading edge to the primaries (well shown in
colour photographs on page 1056 of Birds of the World).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We are most grateful to R. E. Scott and others at Dungeness Bird Observatory
who provided useful comments during the preparation of this paper, and to P. F.
Bonham, whose research and field observations have been invaluable. Dr D. W.
Snow kindly arranged access to skins at the Zoological Museum, Tring.
SUMMARY
A difference in the upperwing pattern of adult Common Terns Sterna hirundo and
Arctic Terns S. paradisaea is described and its usefulness as a character for sepa-
rating the two species in the field is discussed. The Common Tern has the outer
five to seven primaries darker than the remainder, while the Arctic’s upperwing
is uniform, and this difference applies for the whole time the birds are outside their
wintering areas. It is related to the arrested moult cycle of the Common Tern.
REFERENCES
Grant, P. J., and Scott, R. E. 1969. ‘Field identification of juvenile Common,
Arctic and Roseate Terns’. Brit. Birds, 62: 297-299, plate 53.
Jacobsen, J. R. 1961. ‘Bestemmelse af Havterne ( Sterna paradisaea Pont.) og
Fjordterne ( Sterna hirundo L.) i naturen’. Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidsskr., 55: 89-96
(English summary).
Richardson, R. A. 1953. ‘A distinction in flight between Arctic and Common
Terns’. Brit. Birds, 46: 41 1-4 12.
Scott, R. E., and Grant, P. J. 1969. ‘Uncompleted moult in Sterna terns and the
problem of identification’. Brit. Birds, 62: 93-97, plate 23a.
Vande Weghe, J.-P. 1966. ‘La Sterne Pierregarin Sterna hirundo et la Sterne
Arctique Sterna paradisaea. Identification et passage en Belgique’. Aves, 3:
1-5, plates 1-4 (English translation of identification section, plus plates and
editorial notes on separation of Forster’s Tern S. forsteri, published in 1970 in
California Birds, 1 : 33-36).
R. A. Hume, 31 Lime Grove, Burntwood, Walsall, Staffordshire WS7 oha
P. J. Grant, 16 Windermere Court, Quantock Drive, Ashford, Kent
Hhe breeding behaviour and biology
of the Moorhen
W. A. Wood
Plate 25
Concluded from page 1 if)
WESTING
! Three types of structure associated with breeding are made by
jaired Moorhens: display platforms, egg nests and brood nests.
display platforms
1 These structures were built from late February onwards. Almost
any available material from the immediate vicinity was used, main-
y dead twigs, sedges Carex spp, reeds Phragmites communis and water-
weeds. Some pairs utilised a floating pile of dead waterweed that
iad accumulated in emergent vegetation. Platforms were frequently
milt in quite exposed places; they were sometimes on dry land at the
dge of the water, but more often attached to semi-aquatic vegeta-
tion in the stream. They measured 2-5 cm in depth and 20-25 cm
I :n diameter, were loosely made and, with frequent rises in water
level, seldom lasted more than three weeks. At times, as many as
ave platforms were present simultaneously in the territory of a
ingle pair. A display platform is shown in plate 25a.
New platforms were never built while egg-laying or incubation
was in progress, but old platforms were sometimes used as night
oosts by non-incubating birds.
i gg nests
loth sexes were seen to take part in nest-building. Males took
he greater share of collecting the materials, while females did
aost of the arrangement. Most pairs built two nests before laying
heir first clutch of the season, but in renesting attempts only
ne was built. Where there were two nests, the unoccupied one
1 was sometimes used as a roosting place by the non-incubating bird;
ince such nests were constantly disintegrating, however, most
isappeared before incubation was completed.
All nests were either in water, or suspended above it, or on mud
anks surrounded by water. As also found by other workers (e.g.
redrickson 1971, Relton 1972), many, but by no means all, were
'ell concealed in emergent vegetation.
Nests were built while the display platforms were still in use,
137
1 38 Breeding biology of Moorhen
frequently about a week prior to egg-laying. In four cases nest
construction started less than twelve hours before the first egg
was deposited. Such rudimentary nests were really foundations,
consisting of twigs and coarse stems, and similar in appearance to
the platforms; further materials were subsequently added to the
sides, and the cup was lined with finer matter. Early nests were
constructed almost entirely of dead material, since green vegetation
was not available. As the season progressed, increasingly greater
proportions of green vegetation were utilised. In some early nests,
green material was added to the original structure during incubation.
During the early stages of construction, anything available in
the immediate vicinity was used to form the base, though preference
was shown for coarser materials, such as dead twigs or stems of
reeds. In the later stages finer materials, usually leaves, were added.
Where pond sedge C. acutiformis or floating sweet grass Glyceria fluitans
was present, this was used in preference to reed stems. One pair
nesting in a reed bed brought sedge leaves from 12 metres away
for this purpose.
Nests floating in water over 20 cm deep often had a ramp incor-
porated on one side. This was made of coarse materials like the
base of the nest and permitted the owners to enter and leave with-
out damaging the sides of the nest (plate 25b). About half the
nests had no ramp and these were generally situated in shallower
water.
Brood nests
Brood nests were built shortly after the young hatched, and were
similar to egg nests in both size and structure but usually much
more rapidly constructed, frequently being completed in less than
eight hours. Some brood nests lacked a ramp, and there was evidence
to suggest that certain pairs always made ramps while others did
not, though, as with egg nests, this might depend to some extent
on the water depth. Some pairs had as many as five brood nests;
as will be shown later, this appears to be related to the number of
young hatched.
EGG-LAYING
Egg characteristics
The base colour of the egg was buff, though one female laid greenish-
white eggs. All eggs were spotted with a darker colour of varying
shades of brown, from reddish and purplish to almost black. These
spots varied considerably in size and number and were concentrated
more at the blunter end (air-space region), unlike the eggs of the
Eurasian and American Coots which have spots evenly distributed
(Witherby et al.. 1938-41, Gullion 1954). The depth of both ground
i39
Breeding biology of Moorhen
and spot colours, and the size and density of spots, were consistent
in all eggs laid by each individual female, whether in the first
nest, the second nest or renests.
Eighty-eight eggs were weighed, generally within 24 hours of
laying. The mean weight was 24.88 gm, the range 21.5-28.5 gm.
Fig. 10. Weights of 88
freshly laid eggs of Moor-
hens Gallinula chloropus,
Avon Valley study area,
1 968-69
Season
WEIGHT (gm)
In 1968 the earliest egg was found on 6th April, while in 1969 the
earliest was not until 13 days later. First eggs were generally
later in 1969 (see table 2). Table 3 shows that the mean temperatures
in February and particularly in March were lower in 1969 than
in 1968, possibly reducing food availability prior to laying. The
latest clutch recorded was commenced on 22nd July. Relton (1972)
reported clutches started as early as 26th March and as late as 8th
August in Huntingdonshire.
Rate and time of laying
l One egg was deposited each day until completion of the clutch,
confirming the statements of Witherby et al. (1938-41) and Stein-
bacher (1939). Where two birds were laying in the same nest (see
below), the eggs of each female were considered separable on the
basis of their individual characteristics, particularly colour variation.
Relton (1972) and C. R. Huxley (in lift.) also consider this method
reasonably reliable.
ble 2. Laying dates of first eggs of Moorhens Gallinula chloropus , Avon Valley
study area, 1968-69
me eggs might possibly have been laid in an earlier period if predation had occurred
before the first observation
APRIL MAY JUNE TOTAL
I-78-I4 15-21 22-30 I-78-I4 15-21 22-30 I-7 PAIRS
imber in 1968 1125 1 - - - 10
imber in 1969 - - 1 3 1 3 1 2 1 12
140 Breeding biology of Moorhen
Table 3. Mean spring temperatures (degrees Centigrade) at Hurn,
Hampshire, 1968-69
The overall mean given here is the average of the mean maximum and mean
minimum
February
March
April
May
1968
Mean maximum
6.4
10.7
12.7
14.8
Mean minimum
-0.9
2.4
2-9
5-6
Overall mean
2.7
6-5
7.8
10.2
1969
Mean maximum
5-6
8.9
13.2
*5-5
Mean minimum
— 1.2
1.4
3-o
7-3
Overall mean
2.2
5-i
8.1
11.4
The exact time when eggs were laid was not determined, but in
all known cases this took place before 08.00 hours GMT. Steinbacher
(1939) reported that egg-laying normally takes place at night.
Clutch size
The mean clutch size in ‘first nests’ (the first clutch of the season),
excluding those predated or parasitised during laying, was 6.1 in
both 1968 and 1969 (table 4). There appeared to be little difference
in clutch size between first nests and ‘first renests’ (the first attempt
at a replacement clutch following destruction or predation of a
first nest), but, as the season progressed, the clutch size in sub-
sequent renests generally became smaller (table 4), and renesting
was eventually curtailed altogether. Thus, the mean clutch sizes
Table 4. Clutch sizes of Moorhens Gallinula chloropus , Avon Valley study
area, 1968-69
Data exclude incomplete clutches and those laid by more than one bird
total Number of clutches of:
Type of nest clutches 456789 Mean
1968
First nest
First renest
Second renest
Third renest
6
6
2
3
I
I
1
2
5 1
5 1
6.1
6.1
4-5
4-7
1969
First nest
8
I
5 2
6.1
First renest
6
2
3 1
5-9
Second renest
2
2
6.0
Third renest
2
I
I
4-5
Fourth renest
I
I
5-o
Fifth renest
I
I
5°
Second nest
I
I
6.0
First renest
I
i
6.0
Second renest
I
I
4.0
Breeding biology of Moorhen 141
over the whole of the 1968 and 1969 seasons were 5.32 and 5.39
respectively. Relton (1972) also found clutches of six were com-
monest, but her first nests averaged 6.7 eggs, renests 6.0 and second
nests 5.25.
The laying of eggs in the nest of another Moorhen (referred to
here as ‘nest parasitism’) was found in a few cases and resulted
in large ‘clutches’ of, for example, ten eggs (six laid by nest owner,
four by ‘parasitic’ bird) and eight (six laid by the nest owner,
one each by two ‘parasitic’ females). In all cases nest parasitism
took place between birds of neighbouring territories, and it may
be significant that these were either comparatively small territories
or ones where the nests themselves were situated in relatively close
proximity to the neighbours’ territory. In one case the predation
of a nest after the third egg was laid resulted in the bird laying
her fourth egg in the egg nest of her neighbour on the following
day. This ‘parasitic’ bird subsequently laid a further six eggs in a
newly constructed nest in her own territory.
Renesting
During 1969 eight birds each renested once, and single birds twice,
three times, four times and five times; the latest egg-laying in
renests occurred in the last week of July. The 1968 breeding season
was shorter, despite an earlier start, and renesting was curtailed
earlier, in the last week of June.
Renesting intervals varied considerably (table 5). The average
'Table 5. Renesting intervals of Moorhens Gallinula chloropus predated at
'different stages of incubation (in days), Avon Valley study area, 1968-69
Stage of nesting Stage of incubation Interval Mean interval
Egg-laying
-
1
2
IO
*4
1
* 6.75
First half of incubation
2
8
1
2
9
2
IO
2
18
6
IO
► 1 0.0
7
7
IO
6
IO
>5
I I
7
J
Second half of incubation
•3
7
1
16
4
>■ 6-67
20
9
J
142
Breeding biology of Moorhen
renesting intervals of nests predated during the first and second
halves of the incubation period (10.0 and 6.67 days respectively)
closely resembled those found by Blandin (1965) for the Clapper
Rail R. longirostris — 10.3 days during the first 14 days of incubation,
and 7.6 during the final 15-23 days.
Second nesting
Only one case of a ‘second nest’ (another attempt at nesting follow-
ing the successful hatching and rearing of the young of a previous
nest in that season) was recorded (see table 4). Laying commenced
in the second nest on 17th June 1969, 26 days after the first brood
hatched. Each parent, when not incubating, continued to feed the
young of the first brood. This nest was predated after seven days of
incubation. A first renest was attempted seven days later, but again,
after eleven days of incubation, predation terminated this nesting.
After a further interval of seven days a second renest was started on
22nd July and one chick hatched in mid-August. The first brood
had by this time dispersed.
Causes of egg failure
During the two breeding seasons 267 eggs were known to have been
laid in the study area, of which 47 hatched. The causes of this
considerable loss are summarised in table 6.
Table 6. Causes of egg failure of Moorhens Gallinula chloropus,
Avon Valley study area, 1968-69
Number of eggs
Cause of failure 1968 1969
Flooding
42
—
Infertility
I
-
Suspected predators: Corvidae
-
8
Mustelidae
6
-
Fox Vulpes vulpes
8
7
Unknown
47
100
Undetermined factors
—
3
TOTAL EGG LOSSES 102 I 1 8
The 1968 season was particularly affected by sudden heavy rain,
causing rapid rises in the water level and producing fast-flowing
torrents which dislodged nest structures and flooded eggs.
Infertility appeared to be insignificant, but it is not known
what proportion of the eggs lost to other causes was also infertile.
Relton (1972) also reported a low infertility rate in Moorhens in
Huntingdonshire.
Predation is believed to have accounted for the greatest egg
losses in both years. However, since the act of predation was
Breeding biology of Moorhen 143
never witnessed, only subjective evidence can be given. Firstly,
all eight eggshells found (from eight different nests) were between
4.5 and 12 metres from the nests in question, a feature reported
as being characteristic of predation by crows (Corvidae) on eggs
of Ruffed Grouse Bonasa umbellus (Bump et al. 1947) and on duck
eggs (Sowls 1948). Secondly, all these eggs had retained their
shape, and all had a moderate-sized hole on one side and another
small puncture on the opposite side with outward-projecting
fragments. From the review by Rearden (1951) of waterfowl nest
predators, this appears to be typical of crow predation.
Two mustelids — Stoat Muslela erminea and Weasel M. nivalis —
are known to have been present in the study area, while American
Mink M. vison inhabited the Avon Valley, though they were not
seen in the study area. There was evidence of mustelids taking six
eggs (from one nest) from the presence of their characteristic
musty odour. No damage to the structure of the nest had taken place.
Predation of two nests (13 eggs) was believed to have been carried
out by one or more Foxes Vulpes vulpes, the nest form being com-
pletely destroyed, with the greatest damage to the side. This was
the pattern found by Rearden (1951) for six out of eight nests
destroyed by the American Red Fox V.fulva.
INCUBATION AND HATCHING
Start of incubation
Data concerning the time when incubation commenced were
obtained from 34 nests during the two breeding seasons (table 7).
lln first nests incubation did not start until completion of the
clutch, with one exception in which it commenced with the laying
of the last egg but one. In contrast, in renests, and also in the
single second nest recorded, incubation always started before com-
pletion of the clutch, usually when about half the clutch had been
laid but in two cases after the laying of the second egg in eventual
clutches of six.
ble 7. Proportion of eggs laid by Moorhens Gallinula chloropus at start of incu-
ion in relation to stage of egg-laying in first and later nests, Avon Valley
study area, 1968-69
je of nest
Number
studied
Mean no. eggs per
nest at start
of incubation
Mean total
clutch size
Percent eggs
laid at start
of incubation
>t nest
I I
6.1
6.2
98-5
irst renest
7
3-3
5-8
56.1
econd to fifth renests
'3
3-2
5-5
583
ond nest
1
3-0
6.0
50.0
irst and second renests
2
2.0
5-o
40.0
144 Breeding biology of Moorhen
Incubation behaviour
Both sexes incubate. Observations on the duration of each bird’s
incubation shifts in the main study area were limited, owing to
the shyness of the birds and to the dense cover surrounding the
nests. During two days’ observations on a ‘tame’ pair at Poole
Park, the female’s incubation shifts varied from 26 to 105 minutes,
while the male’s turn varied from 45 to 155 minutes. The non-
incubating bird usually spent a short time washing before seeking
food.
During one of the female’s shifts in the morning of the first
day’s observation at Poole Park, the male spent 19 minutes col-
lecting new nest materials and presenting them to the incubating
female; she then arranged them round the rim while still sitting.
When the presentation took place the male frequently uttered two-
syllabled calls of very low volume : ‘cruck-cruck, cruck-cruck’ ; and
at change-overs he continually uttered this presentation call.
While incubating a certain amount of spasmodic preening and
changes in position took place. During one of the male’s shifts a
Mallard came very close to the nest; the Moorhen raised his head,
flicked his tail repeatedly and uttered a barely audible ‘te-te-te . . .’.
This behaviour stopped when the ‘danger’ was four metres away.
No such reaction was recorded in the female which, in addition
to being approached by the Mallard, had a similar encounter with a
Mute Swan Cygnus olor. In the Avon Valley study area observations
on nest defence responses were confined to those performed against
mammalian intrusion only. This main Moorhen population was
exceedingly shy of humans and, at the first sight of such an intruder,
the incubating bird would run or splatter rapidly away and hide in
dense vegetation, returning to the nest only after the intruder
was no longer visible.
In four comparatively intensively studied pairs that successfully
brought off broods, nest defence or ‘distraction’ displays were
performed. Such behaviour took place between one and five minutes
after the initial action of fleeing from the nest and hiding. Firstly,
the bird appeared from the undergrowth and uttered loud distress
calls: in the female these consisted of a single, or sometimes a
repeated, ‘kirk’, while the male’s equivalent was somewhat like
the amplified sound of a pair of garden shears being opened and
closed. Then, in addition to the calls, swanning took place and
was sometimes followed by and interspersed with churning (see
pages 108-109), the latter being more frequent after the eggs had
been pipped or when chicks were present. Although both sexes
performed these displays, the male usually took the dominant role.
If he had been incubating or brooding the young, the female rarely
joined in and displayed. If the female had been incubating, she
Breeding biology of Moorhen 145
came out of hiding and displayed, but when the male also started
to take part she quite frequently went back into hiding again.
In three of these four closely observed pairs, defence displays
were never performed before the eggs were pipped, but once this
had occurred they were continued, with diminishing frequency,
until the young dispersed from the territory. These pairs were single-
brooded. In the fourth pair, which was double-brooded, the same
behaviour was exhibited with the first nest, but the second was
defended throughout egg-laying and incubation.
Despite their shyness towards humans, the Moorhens in the main
study area showed no pronounced fear of cattle, with which they
had frequent contact. The presence of these animals near a nest
invoked no marked defensive reactions.
Incubation period
To ascertain the incubation period, each egg when first found was
marked with a pencilled number and the nests visited at least once
daily until the start of incubation. This was judged to have begun
when the temperature of all eggs present was uniform, since prior
to this only the last egg, just laid, was warm.
In one first nest in 1968 all six eggs hatched within one hour,
after an incubation period of 21 days (plus or minus about four
hours). In a first nest in 1969 pipping (a star-shaped crack in
the shell) was synchronous, but the time between the hatching of
the first and last chicks was 18 hours. The incubation period of
these eggs, assuming that incubation began at 04.00 hours GMT on
the day the last egg was laid, averaged 21.75 days and ranged from
21.25 to 22.1 days (table 8). These incubation periods lie within
the range of 19-22 days given by YVitherby etal. (1938-41) and Relton
Table 8. Hatching events in two nests of Moorhens Gallinula
chloropus of known history, Avon Valley study area, 1968-69
Order of
Order of
Incubation
Type of nest
egg-laying
hatching
period (days)
First nest
I
2
21-5
2
I
21.25
3
3
21.8
4
5
22.1
5
4
22.0
Second renest
1
j
2
22.6
3
J
4
4
22.0
5
5
21. 1
6
6
20.9
146 Breeding biology of Moorhen
(1972); the latter found a mean of 20.1 days for seven clutches.
In renests and second nests it has been shown that incubation
starts before completion of the clutch. In such cases, as one would
expect, hatching is non-synchronous, being spread over several
days. However, despite successive differences of about 24 hours
between the laying of each egg (and therefore, theoretically,
between the embryonic development of each egg laid after the start
of incubation), such eggs hatched at considerably less than 24-hour
intervals. Sufficient data to confirm this could be obtained from
only one nest, where the exact time of hatching was observed for
four of the six eggs and a maximum possible error of plus or minus
one hour obtained for the hatching time of the other two. These
data (table 8) show that the first three eggs laid hatched at the
same time; since incubation was known to have started with the
third egg, they all underwent the same incubation period. However,
eggs four, five and six, laid about 24, 48 and 72 hours after incu-
bation commenced, hatched at 13, 33I and 40 hours respectively
after the hatching of the first three eggs. Vince (1968) has shown
experimentally in Bobwhite Quail Colinus virginianus that a reduction
in hatching spread can be brought about by retardation of the most
advanced embryos and also by an acceleration of the most retarded
embryo. The same phenomenon may possibly occur in the Moorhen.
Hatching events
The first external sign of hatching begins with the chick pipping
a small star-shaped crack in the shell about 2-2 £ days before hatch-
ing. Typically, about four hours later four or five such cracks, fairly
evenly spaced, appear round the line of the air-space. For about
the next 20 hours no change occurs, but after an additional four
hours more cracks appear and after a further 1 8 hours a small hole
is made through which the chick’s beak can be clearly seen. The
chicks usually hatch two to 18 hours later.
Four Moorhen and three Coot eggs set in an artificial incubator
also pipped about two days before hatching. These likewise had a
resting period, during which no change occurred, the day before
hatching.
The embryo chick gives a characteristic ‘phew’ vocalisation from
shortly after the time it first pips into the air-space, a call which
is maintained until the chick is quite well grown. This call is
given continually except during the resting periods after pipping
and immediately after hatching, and while sleeping or being brooded.
The chick’s eyes are open when it emerges from the shell, but,
being exhausted by the final efforts of hatching, it rests with eyes
closed if undisturbed. Despite its initial weakness, it is capable
of holding its head erect about 15 minutes after hatching. Drying
Breeding biology of Moorhen 147
, ble 9. Productivity of Moorhens Gallinula chloropus at different periods, Avon
Valley study area, 1968-69
Nests
Nests
Eggs
Chicks
Chicks reared
Period started
successful
laid
hatched
(to 70 days)
968
April 1-15
2
1
>3
6
6
no pairs)
16-30
7
38
-
-
May 1-15
3
1
l6
5
5
16-31
5
27
-
-
June 1-15
4
19
—
16-30
I
1
5
5
5
TOTALS
22
3
1 18
16
16
969
April 16-30
4
1
22
5
5
12 pairs)
May 1-15
9
2
39
6
6
16-31
5
1 29
6
6
June 1-15
4
18
—
-
16-30
6
2
26
9
7
July 1-15
I
6
-
-
16-31
2
2
9
5
5
TOTALS
3i
8
*49
3i
29
takes about two to four hours. Very soon after each chick has
hatched — even while it is still wet — the eggshell is either removed or
eaten by a parent.
Hatching and rearing success
Table 9 shows the hatching and rearing success of 267 eggs known
to have been laid in the Avon Valley study area during 1968 and
1969. During 1968 only three of 22 nests started (13.6%) were
successful, and of the 1 18 eggs laid only 16 (13.6%) hatched, giving
an average of 1.6 chicks per pair. The situation improved somewhat
during the 1969 season when eight nests out of 31 (25.8%) were
successful and 31 chicks hatched, representing a mean production of
2.6 chicks per pair.
Rearing success as measured by the proportion of young known to
be surviving at 70 days of age, in contrast to hatching success,
was high. During 1968 all chicks were reared, while in 1969 29 out
of 31 chicks hatched (94%) survived; of the two young lost, one
disappeared at about ten days of age, while the other was killed
by a Stoat when 65 days old.
PARENTAL CARE AND DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG
Parental care and chick behaviour
Once dry, the chicks were quite buoyant and capable of climbing in
and out of the nest if necessary, though chicks from synchronous
148 Breeding biology of Moorhen
hatches generally stayed in the nest for the first twelve to 24 hours.
When hatching took place over several days, the first chick to
emerge normally stayed in the nest for two days. By the time
several chicks had hatched, they usually left the nest for short
periods in the care of one of the parents, while the other, usually
the male, continued incubating the remaining eggs.
Brood nests (already mentioned on page 138) were built soon after
the last chick had hatched, though in one case the egg nest was
used for brooding the chicks until the fifth day. Although additional
materials were added from time to time, new brood nests were built
and the old ones eventually allowed to disintegrate. Owing to the
difficulty of finding brood nests in the dense vegetation, an intensive
search for these structures was confined to five territories containing
broods. It appeared that the number of brood nests constructed
was correlated directly with brood size and inversely with their
duration and functional life (table 10).
Like nidicolous young, the chicks are initially dependent upon
their parents for food. On the approach of a parent the chick
performed a begging display (fig. 11a). The entire head and body
were stretched upwards and forwards at an angle of about 6o° from
the horizontal, so that the bird was sitting on its ‘tail end’. The
wings were outspread and often quivered. The head, which thus dis-
played most prominence, often developed gentle swaying movements
not unlike those sometimes seen in nidicolous nestlings. As the chick
approached two weeks of age this begging display was gradually
modified (fig. 1 ib) : it tended to squat and elevate its hind quarters
with neck held low, while the head was pointed slightly upwards;
as before it still displayed with outstretched, quivering wings.
Upon the presentation of food (fig. 11c), chicks of all ages
snatched at the parent’s bill. Food tended to be offered to the
chick which begged and pecked most voraciously. It seems likely
that chicks are adapted to peck at the adult’s beak, as in many
Table 10. Comparison of brood size in five cases with number and dura-
tion (in days) of brood nests constructed by Moorhens Gallinula chloropus,
Avon Valley study area, 1968-69
One chick in brood b died when approximately one week old
Brood
Chicks
hatched
Brood nests
constructed
Total time brood
nests used by chicks
Mean functional
life of each nest
A
I
2
66
33-o
B
3
2
55
27-5
c
4
4
50
'2-5
D
5
4
35
8-75
E
6
5
44
8.8
Means
3-8
3-4
50
14.7
a
Fig. ii. Young Moorhens
Gallinula chloropus begging for
food, showing postures of (a)
newly hatched chick, and (b)
chick approaching two weeks
old; (c) adult presenting food
I terns and gulls (Laridae), since it has been shown experimentally
(Weidmann 1965, Kear 1966) that Moorhen chicks tend to peck at
I red and yellow more readily than other colours.
Although feeding of the chicks by the parents was frequently
I observed, only common duckweed Lemna minor and Canadian pond-
I ■ weed Elodea canadensis were specifically identified as food items.
I Animal food was unidentifiable. W. E. Collinge (in Witherby et al.
1938-41) found ‘vegetable matter 61%, worms 23% and insect larvae
1 6%’ in six ‘nestlings’ examined. Plater (1969) reported an adult
I Moorhen taking an unhatched egg from its own nest and feeding it
I to the chicks, and N. A. Wood (in Plater 1969) examined a chick
I iless than one week old which contained grass and Mallard egg
remains. Fredrickson (1971), working with the North American
race G. c. cachinnates, noted that nymphs of dragonflies (Odonata)
and mayflies (Ephemeroptera) were frequently fed to the chicks.
After the first week daytime brooding decreased considerably.
I At two weeks of age early-hatched chicks were regularly brooded
only on colder days. Late broods (hatched from June to August)
were never seen to be brooded between 08.00 and 18.30 GMT.
From about the eighth day chicks, when disturbed, were capable
of diving and swimming up to three metres underwater. This may be
an important survival mechanism, as from this age the parents often
temporarily deserted somd of the young while searching for food.
I The parents appeared to have no difficulty in relocating their
I young, even in dense vegetation, presumably because of the almost
I continuous ‘phew’ cries made by the chicks. Larger broods contain-
I ing more than four chicks were sometimes divided between the two
I parents, with separate groups foraging in different areas of the
I territory.
150 Breeding biology of Moorhen
As the chicks grew they became less reliant on their parents and
by the age of 25 days were finding a large proportion of their own
food. Although juveniles often foraged with their parents, parental
feeding was not observed after 45 days of age. Juvenile Moorhens
could fly well at 60 to 65 days of age, though one individual did
not attain the power of flight until 75 days old.
Multiple brood family units
Although one pair managed to produce two broods in the same sea-
son, its first brood had dispersed before the next brood hatched,
the interval between these hatches being eleven weeks. Thus it was
not possible in this study to observe the behaviour of family units
containing two broods, though I have seen first-brood juveniles help
feed younger siblings elsewhere. Grey (1927) first recorded juveniles
taking food from their parents and passing it to younger chicks.
Brown (1944) further reported first-brood juveniles feeding those
of the third brood. Juveniles have also been seen to collect food
and present it to their parents which in turn fed it to the chicks,
and also to collect food and feed it to younger chicks directly.
Robertson (1964) reported a juvenile Moorhen incubating, while
I have observed a juvenile brooding younger siblings. A further link
in this chain of remarkable domesticity was provided by Hayman
( 1 955) wh° recorded an adult presenting sticks and leaves to a half-
Fig. 12. Comparative weight increases in wild and hand-reared chicks of Moor-
hens Gallimla chloropus up to 70 days, Avon Valley study area, 1968-69
Breeding biology of Moorhen 151
grown juvenile which worked them into the rim of the nest.
The participation of juveniles in feeding younger siblings has
also been reported in the North American race of the Moorhen (E. A.
Mcllhenny in Nice 1943, Skutch 1961), Coot (Ruthke 1939, H.
Boyd in Kear 1966) and Southern White-breasted Rail Laterallus
leucopyrrhus (W. Meise in Nice 1943). Harrison (1970) observed a
group of four captive Purple Gallinules co-operating in raising a
single brood. Two were siblings of the previous year but in adult
plumage. Such a phenomenon is unlikely to occur in European
Moorhens, as juveniles are not tolerated after the breeding season.
Growth of the young
The application of fish-fingerling tags to newly hatched chicks
made it possible to know the exact age of the birds if subsequently
recaptured, when weights and measurements were always taken.
During the chick’s first week little weight change occurred, but
thereafter their weight increased rapidly until 45 days of age,
after which growth continued but at a slower rate; the more rapid
growth observed in a group of hand-reared chicks fed ‘chick starter
crumbs’ (19% protein) ad lib. illustrates the growth potential
when a superabundant food supply is available (fig. 12). The
length of the tarsus and middle toe combined was found to increase
faster initially than either the wing- or bill-length; this is illustrated
in fig. 13 which, however, should be interpreted with caution,
since it compares the absolute and not the relative rates of increase.
Fig. 1 3. Growth of wild chicks of Moorhens Gallinula chloropus as shown by increase
in length of bill and shield, wing, and tarsus and middle toe, Avon Valley study
area, 1968-69
*52
Breeding biology of Moorhen
Plumage and soft part changes
Days 1-7 When dry the newly hatched chick, except on the head, was covered
with black down. That on the upperparts was glossy with long, hair-like tips,
while the down on the underparts was shorter and sooty-black. The density of the
down was considerably greater on the underparts, providing greater water repel-
lence and insulation when swimming. The down on the back and wings also became
denser after a few days, though on the head it remained very sparse, particularly
towards the frontal region. The down on the chin, sides of head and throat was
tipped with white and coarser, each filament being enclosed with a sheath con-
taining a number of finer filaments of down. On the wing at the end of the first
digit or alula there was a distinct claw, curved at the tip and 1-1.5 mm in length.
The legs and toes were black, the skin above the eyes blue, and the bill and shield,
as in the adults, bright red and tipped with yellow. About 1 mm from the tip
of the upper mandible there was a pale yellow pipping ‘tooth’ approximately
1 mm in diameter and 0.5 mm in thickness.
Days 8-18 By the eighth day the head had a thicker covering of down, and during
the following ten days the blue coloration above the eyes began to fade, but
otherwise little change occurred.
Days 19-30 During this period of rapid growth, chicks underwent considerable
plumage change, though individual variation occurred in the age of attainment
of certain plumage characters, and the heaviest chick in a brood always had the
most advanced plumage.
Initially, short quills began to appear or the flanks and back which gave
rise to short dark brown feathers, followed in a few days by greyish tufts covering
the ears. Cream feathers based with grey developed from both sides of the belly,
gradually spreading into the centre and leaving a distinct stripe of black natal
down of daily diminishing width. Towards the end of this period more feathers
developed on the head and neck and the tail feathers began to grow. The head
feathers were whitish on the chin, gradually giving way to white feathers tipped
with dark brown on the face and to entirely dark brown ones on the crown and
upper surface of the neck. The underside of the neck was greyish to olive-brown.
Natal down persisted throughout this stage only on the tail and wings, but
small flakes of it remained for some time attached to the tips of newly developed
feathers. Towards the end of this period the red on the bill and shield faded
to a more subdued pinkish-red and the pipping tooth gradually wore off. The
legs, originally jet-black, became more greyish-black.
Days 31-45 Fewer changes occurred, but as the tail-coverts continued to grow
they became more obvious. This period was characterised by the initial develop-
ment of the primaries, secondaries and wing-coverts. The primary quills pro-
truded through the skin at about 30-35 days of age. The development of all ten
primaries was almost simultaneous, there being no more than about two days’
difference between the first (outermost) and last (innermost). The secondary
quills immediately followed and there was likewise only about two days’ difference
between development of the innermost and outermost. The wing-coverts developed
simultaneously with the secondaries but much faster, their entire growth usually
being completed within 15 days of their first appearance.
Upon reaching a length of about 3 mm, the tips of both the primary and
secondary quills split, showing the first signs of the actual feathers. Both the
quill and feather parts continued to grow, the former to a maximum length of
about 30 mm. Primary and secondary feather growth during this period averaged
about 1.3 mm per day.
Breeding biology of Moorhen 153
The only natal down still remaining at 45 days of age was confined to the
patagium of the wing. The upper part of the bill and shield, originally red,
became steadily pinker, in turn changing to dark olive-green, though the yellow
tip remained unchanged. The growth of the legs and toes slowed down consider-
ably and the edge of each leg scale turned greenish, this colour change creeping
inwards over the scale until at about 40 days of age the legs were entirely dark
olive-green.
Days 46-65 The changes during this period were small. Body weight increased
only slowly, and wing feather development continued.
Development after 65 days Up to about 15 weeks no further plumage changes
were observed. However, the legs became even greener and the bill and shield
(except the yellow tip) turned darker olive-green to almost black in some indi-
viduals.
The post-juvenile moult took place at 15 to 18 weeks of age. The first-winter
plumage developed through only a partial moult of the juvenile feathers, the wing
feathers (including the coverts) and tail feathers not being moulted. The head and
neck became dark brown, except for the chin and throat which remained buff-
white. The base of the neck and the underparts became dark slate blue-black
tipped with cream and buff-brown. The overall appearance became similar to
that of the adult but more grey-brown. YVitherby et al. (1938-41) stated that
another (first-summer) moult takes place in April, though only partial, being
confined to the head, neck and throat.
Dispersal of the young
Little information was obtained on the time of brood dispersal,
owing to the difficulties of observation in dense vegetation. During
the later stages of development members of any particular brood
were, on average, seen on only one visit to the study area in three.
Thus the time of dispersal of all members of a brood could only be
estimated from the time when no young were seen after frequent and
repeated visits to the territory in question. On this basis, the age
at dispersal ranged from 52 to 99 days and averaged 72 days. This
(Compares with about 70 days in the Coot (Cramp 1947) and
80 in the American Coot (Gullion 1954).
BREEDING BIOLOGY DISCUSSION
The numerous nest-like structures built by paired Moorhens are
similar to those constructed by at least some other rails, including
the American and Eurasian Coots (Gullion 1954, Kornowski
1957), Tasmanian Native Hen (Ridpath 1964) and Takahe Notornis
mantelli (Williams i960). Certain others, such as the Virginia Rail
R. limicola, Clapper Rail, King Rail and Sora Rail Porgana Carolina
(Walkinshaw 1937, 1940, Kozicky and Schmidt 1949, Meanley 1953,
Pospichal and Marshall 1954), appear to construct nests only for
their eggs. Possibly display platforms and brood nests may be
features unique to gallinules and coots: though obviously valuable
for their intended use by coots, which occupy open aquatic habitats
1 54 Breeding biology of Moorhen
such as lakes and reservoirs, their value to the more terrestrial
gallinules must be limited to the protection given against ground
predators, at least in the case of brood nests on or surrounded by
water.
The commonest clutch size found in this study was six, but the
number of eggs varied from four to nine and averaged 5.3. As the
season progressed clutch size in renesting attempts became smaller
(table 4). Renesting had an important influence on the total number
of young produced in the study areas in the 1968 and 1969 breeding
seasons, but, since the extent of renesting depends on earlier nest
losses (flooding or predation), it might not necessarily be signifi-
cant in areas where nest losses are small. Renesting persistence
probably varies between individual females and from season to
season: during the warmer summer of 1969 more occurred than in
1968. Sowls (1955), in reviewing the physiological process involved in
renesting, stated that in single-brooded species the further incubation
had proceeded at the time of nest loss the longer the renesting
interval would be. However, in double-brooded species the reverse
occurs, the renesting interval being shorter if the nest is destroyed
late in the incubation period ; this is due to a renewed growth of the
ovary follicles in preparation for the second nest. Thus, from the
data presented (table 5), the Moorhen would seem well adapted to
renesting and even to continued nesting following earlier breeding
successes.
Only one case of second nesting was recorded in the Avon Valley
study area, but this may occur more frequently in other areas;
Norderhaug (1962) stated that two broods were usual in Norway.
Anderson (1965), in his Aberdeenshire study area, found that pairs
with previous breeding experience were generally triple-brooded.
Relton (1972) in Huntingdonshire, also working in lowland agri-
cultural habitat, found that 22% of clutches were replacements
(renests) and 21% second clutches, but she recorded no third
clutches.
Based on the number of eggs laid, hatching success was low in
the present study. However, it must be borne in mind that if hatch-
ing success had been high fewer eggs would have been laid, since
the majority of eggs were produced in renesting attempts. In con-
trast to hatching success, rearing success was extremely high (97%)>
and resulted in an average production of 2.1 young per pair over
the two seasons. The ability of Moorhens to renest is, at least
from this evidence, of great importance in maintaining the popula-
tion size. Relton, who reported heavy egg predation, also found
a high chick survival rate (91%) and estimated a production of
4.2 young per pair in her study area.
Parental care as exhibited by both sexes in the Moorhen is not
Plate 21. Arctic Tern Sterna paradisaea, Northumberland, June 1970 photo: David
and Katie Urry). Typical features are rather short, ‘spiky', all blood-red bill,
rounded head, ‘neckless' appearance, grey underbody, long tapering dark band
on trailing edge of all primaries, remiges below otherwise uniformly pale and
translucent against light (forming long narrow triangle), and upper-primaries
all similar, outer ones no darker than inner; see also plate 24a (pages 133-136
,*v '
^ .
s5rW>
qn
me?
'-«5(^^''
Plate 22. Common Tern Sterna hirundo alighting at nest of Avocets Recurvirostra
avosetta by mistake {photo: Eric Hosking). Here the outer seven upper-primaries
(including the short first) are darker than the rest, though this varies indivi-
dually and five or six seems more usual; as the summer progresses these tend to
darken more than this, the inner ones often showing a darker ‘wedge’ (page 134)
I
n<
I'lj
m
cE
t
23. Right, one
mer (at top)
n adult Coni-
ns, Cornwall,
9 {photo: J. B.
Utomlev), with
,:y of darker
riniaries and
ng ‘wedges’ ;
iling edge to
ng cut square
‘window’ on
imaries. Grey
iidy not diag-
'Arctic. Below,
I ferns, North-
rnd, July 1968
)avid & Katie
niformly pale
mgs (exagger-
fierce light),
i • form, wings
1 her forward
♦
0 §
A'.f
Plate 24. Above, Arctic Tern, Tiree, Argyll, June 1972 {photo: H. E. Grenfell).
Below, Common Tern (in active wing moult) feeding juvenile, with young Black-
headed Gull Larus ridibundus on far right, Netherlands, September 1972 {photo:
Hans Schouten). Arctic’s shorter legs a useful point only in ideal conditions
r //• / 25,.Abov<-’ isPlay Platform. ar>(l below, egg nest with ramp, of Moorhens
\ C,hl°r0pUS' HamPsh,rc (Photos: 1- Wood). Display platforms, usually
attached to emergent vegetation, seldom last long; about half the egg nests in
the study had ramps for entry and exit without damage to the nest (pages i37-i3«
Plates 26 and 27. Male Common Tern Sterna hirundo paired with female Roseate
Tern .S'. dougallii, Coquet Island, Northumberland, June 1973 (photos: C. Stephen
Robbins). Three such mixed pairs each raised one chick to fledging in the main
Roseate-dominated part of the ternery, the chicks (left 1 resembling those of
Common I’erns (pages 168-170). Note Roseate’s long, slender, dark bill, almost
white upperparts, five dark outermost primaries, and very long tail-streamers
Plate 28. Nest of Stone Curlews Burhinus oedicnemus containing two eggs from
each of two females, Kent, May-June 1968 [photo: R. E. Scott) (pages 165-166).
Below, Red-throated Diver Gavia stellata, Lincolnshire, February 1972 [photo:
Keith Atkin): unusually large numbers were reported in January 1974 (page 175)
Breeding biology of Moorhen 1 55
unique among rails; indeed, even from the limited information
available, it seems that this behaviour is common to the majority
of species.
Boyd and Alley (1948) reviewed the natal plumage of 61 species
and subspecies from 25 genera of rails, from which it may be
concluded that the blackish down seems to be general.
The bright head coloration has been the subject of discussion
by several authors. Hingston (1933) suggested that in young Moor-
hens, as in young Coots and spotted woodpeckers Dendrocopos spp,
it was a warning coloration to potential predators. Although this
may possibly be true of woodpeckers, I can find no evidence to
support this hypothesis in the case of Moorhen or Coot chicks.
Indeed, their behaviour towards a possible predator or the alarm
notes of their parents results in efforts to conceal the coloration.
1 During the first few days of life, in which the young spend most
of their time either in the egg nest or in a brood nest, ‘danger’
: results in them scrambling out of the nest to seek dense cover
where they remain motionless with heads bowed, giving further
concealment of the bright colours.
Steinbacher (1930) suggested that the head colours may act as a
stimulus to the adults towards parental care of Coot chicks, a
hypothesis analogous to the believed function of the coloured gape,
or buccal cavity, of passerine nestlings. Boyd and Alley (1948)
expanded upon this and postulated that in Coots ‘the brilliant
head-markings serve to stimulate the adults to feed the young’.
My observations on Moorhen chick behaviour, both in captivity and
1 in the wild, suggest that this hypothesis holds true for the Moor-
hen also. Bearing in mind that in nidicolous species food is always
‘presented’ to the brightest region of the nestlings, the gape, it
i is logical that the adult Moorhen should also present food to the
brightest part of its young, in this case the bill. Here, unlike
nidicolous young, the chick pecks at the food item being held in
the parent’s bill, and when it grips it the parent lets go. This
hypothesis is further supported by the fact that chicks showed
greater reliance on feeding themselves at a time coinciding with a
reduction in bill brightness and were totally independent of parental
feeding by the time the bill turned dark olive-green.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study could not have taken place but for the kindness and co-operation
of J. Stallard, who allowed me the freedom of his land. I am indebted to Dr
D. C. Seel for his valuable criticism of the manuscript, and to Dr C. M. Perrins
for helpful suggestions during various stages of this study. I also wish to thank
A. Anderson, Dr J. S. Ash, Dr R. P. Bray, C. R. Huxley and A. A. G. Thomas for
help and discussion in various ways, and the Meteorological Office at Hurn for
providing the temperature data given in table 3.
i56
Breeding biology of Moorhen
SUMMARY
A study was conducted to investigate certain aspects of the Moorhen Gallinula
chloropus, particularly its breeding biology, from March 1968 until February
1970. Data were obtained in a study area comprising 53 hectares of agricultural
land in the Avon Valley, near Fordingbridge, Hampshire, and supported by
additional observations at Poole Park, Dorset.
The displays are described; those associated with courtship are relatively
simple and their primary function is probably sexual synchronisation. Aggressive
displays are more complex and are probably related to the birds’ extreme ter-
ritorial nature. All the postures exhibited by the Moorhen were extremely similar
to the corresponding ones found in coots Fulica spp. It is suggested that the genera
Gallinula and Fulica may be more closely related than is indicated by the present
classification in separate subfamilies.
Defended breeding territories varied in size. During the autumn and winter
all the Poole Park birds and a few Avon Valley pairs ceased defending territories.
The majority of Avon Valley birds, however, maintained reduced territories or
‘core’ areas, but often fed in the surrounding ‘neutral’ areas with wintering
flocks.
Three types of nest structures were built by breeding pairs: display plat-
forms, egg nests and brood nests. The first were constructed prior to egg-laying
and used as resting structures as well as for coition. Egg nests were more carefully
built than platforms, sometimes having a ramp incorporated to prevent damage
to the sides. If predated, the next clutch of eggs was laid in a newly constructed
nest (renest). Brood nests were very similar to egg nests in construction and were
built shortly after the young hatched. They were used for brooding the chicks
both day and night, and as many as five such constructions were built during the
rearing of a brood.
The clutch size in first nests ranged from five to seven (mean 6.1) during
the two laying seasons, but as the season progressed clutch sizes in renests became
smaller, giving an overall mean of 5.3. Up to six nesting attempts by a single pair
were recorded during the season, which extended from early April until the end
of July. Egg weights ranged from 21.5 to 28.5 gm (mean 24.88).
Incubation in first nests started when the last egg in the clutch has been laid.
In renests, and also in the single second nest recorded (following the successful
hatching and rearing of a first nest), incubation began when only about half the
clutch had been laid, so that hatching was spread over several days. However,
early-incubated eggs tended to take longer than average to hatch, while the last
laid had a reduced incubation period. The average incubation period was 21
days and incubation duties were shared by both parents. Based on the number of
eggs laid (267), hatching success in the Avon Valley study area was low (13.6%
and 25.8%) during both seasons, but persistent renesting attempts resulted in an
overall production of 1 .6 and 2.6 young per pair during 1968 and 1969 respectively.
After hatching, the chicks were helpless until at least a day old and even
after this required much parental care, which was undertaken by both sexes.
Initially growth was slow, but from seven to 45 days it was rapid, after which
it became gradual again. Parental care decreased with age, and by 25 days the
chicks became considerably less dependent upon their parents for food. Most
young were able to fly well at 60 to 65 days but remained with their parents
for 72 days, on average. Survival rates of young to this age were extremely high —
100% and 94% in the two years.
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1 58 Breeding biology of Moorhen
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Nicholas A. Wood , Breadstone Lodge, Breadstone, Berkeley, Gloucestershire
Food of Bee-eaters in southern Spain
Carlos M. Herrera and Adoracion Ramirez
Despite the fact that many studies on the food of the Bee-eater
Merops apiaster have been undertaken in several European countries
(mostly quoted in Swift 1959) and Africa (e.g. Fry 1973), practi-
cally no work has been done hitherto on the diet of this species
in Spain. Up to the present study, the only published data are a
few field observations (Mountfort 1957, Cano i960) and analyses ol
some stomach contents (Gil Lletget 1927-28, 1944-45). In this paper
we deal with the food of Bee-eaters in the first stages of their occu-
pation of southern Spanish breeding sites, on the basis of pellet
analyses.
^ood of Bee-eaters
159
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Pellet samples were collected between 29th April and 13th May 1973
ait three western Andalusian nesting colonies, as follows:
Locality / ( sampling dates 29th April, 2nd and nth May) Close to Villanueva de
iCdrdoba (Cordoba), 700 metres above sea level. The surrounding habitat
i ;onsists of open woods of evergreen oak Quercus ilex with extensive pastures and
( :ultivated farmlands.
locality 2 ( one sample, 13th May) Near Puebla del Rio (Sevilla), 5 metres above
> lea level. Open grasslands with some sparse wild olive trees Olea europaea on one
> iide and large open marshlands on the other. This locality is just on the border of
the marshes of the River Guadalquivir.
Locality 3 ( one sample, 2nd May) El Mustio, in the north of Huelva province, 500
netres above sea level. Habitat a mixture of open evergreen oak woods with
variable amount of shrubs, pure shrubs (mainly Cistus ladaniferus) with no trees
and, to some extent, shrubs afforested with stone pines Pinus pinea.
Each sample of pellets was cleaned and dried to a constant weight,
the whole sample, as well as individual unbroken pellets, being
weighed to the nearest 0.0 1 gm. Identifiable prey remains were
-sorted under a low-power binocular-microscope. These were
:mainly insect heads and wings or fragments of these. Identification
was often made by comparing the remains with specimens in the
iinsect collection of the Department of Zoology, University of
"•Sevilla.
The diet of young Bee-eaters is known to differ substantially
(from that of adults, but we are certain that all the samples we
(Collected were from adults for the following reasons. Because Bee-
feater pellets are extremely weak, they are broken down by rain and
vwind between one breeding season and the next; furthermore, in all
three colonies studied, Bee-eaters did not breed at all in 1972. The
pellets were therefore all ejected by birds occupying the colonies
in spring 1973. Although Bee-eaters arrive in Andalusia from the
last week of March and first week of April, arrival at nest-sites
occurs later, from mid-April throughout early May. The pellet sam-
ples were collected under perches near the nests and never inside
the nest-holes and, in any case, by the dates of collecting the
birds were still excavating and egg-laying had not yet begun.
Results obtained from pellet analyses of insectivorous birds can
be mistaken to some extent, because remains of weak-bodied prey,
such as butterflies (Lepidoptera), dragonflies (Odonata) and some
flies (Diptera), often might not be detected, whole insects being
digested or their remains being too small to be found (Swift 1959).
For example, remains of caddis flies (Trichoptera) and mayflies
(Ephemeroptera) have been detected in several analyses of stomach
contents (Valverde 1967), but we identified none in the pellets;
it is possible that they were taken by the Bee-eaters but fully
digested. Numbers of weak-bodied prey may therefore have been
i6o
Food of Bee-eaters
underestimated. On the other hand, remains of many very small
hard-bodied insects, such as some beetles (Coleoptera) and bugs
(Hemiptera), were readily found in the pellets and their numbers
correctly ascertained. These sources of bias should be borne in mind
when interpreting pellet analyses.
RESULTS
The dry weights of the 28 whole Bee-eater pellets collected by us
ranged from o. 10 to 0.55 gm (mostly 0.15-0.30), averaging 0.207 gm
(standard deviation 0.088). These data do not agree well with those
recorded by Lomont ( 1 946) and Swift ( 1 959) , who gave mean weights
of about 0.5 gm and 4 gm respectively. This disparity might be due
to differences in the moistness of pellets when weighed or to possible
individual or seasonal variation in pellet size.
The numerical totals of prey insects revealed by our analyses are
given in table 1. No attempt was made to assign a conversion factor
to each prey insect and compute the total ‘prey units’, as is often
done in analyses of mammal prey. In many cases identification could
not be made beyond the level of genus, family or order, and live
weights of all the species taken are not available. Hymenoptera
were found in the greatest numbers, forming numerically between
44.5% and 84.8% of the prey in the various samples. Of these, bees
(Apidae : Apis , Bombus, Xylocopa, Andrena, Anthophora and Eucera) were
the most numerous prey at every locality, the Honeybee Apis mellifica
being the commonest species found, ranging from 34.1% to 63.8%
of all prey insects and accounting for 51.6% of the total. Other
Hymenoptera recorded in lesser numbers were ants (Formicidae),
true wasps (Vespidae: Vespa and Polistes ), ruby-tails (Chrysididae),
perhaps potter and mason wasps (Eumenidae) and ichneumons
(Ichneumonidae), though we are not certain of our identification
of the last two families.
Beetles (Coleoptera) were also important in the diet, forming
6.3% to 29.9%. The main families involved were dung beetles and
chafers (Scarabaeidae: Onthophagus and Aphodius, to a lesser extent
Potosia and Epicometis, and Scarabaeus ?) with 10.6% of the total; and
ground beetles (Carabidae: mainly Harpalus , Agonum and Anisodacty-
lum, also Chlaenius and Poecilus) with 2.7% of the total. We also
found longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae: mostly Acmaeops and
Leptura ), carnivorous water beetles (Dytiscidae: Brychius, Colymbetes
fuscus and Rhantus pulverosus), carrion beetles (Silphidae: Silpha),
silver water beetles (Hydrophilidae: Hydrophillus spp. including H.
caraboides ), Histeridae ( Hister uncinatus ), weevils (Curculionidae),
nocturnal ground beetles (Tenebrionidae) and rove beetles (Staphy-
linidae), but none of these families comprised more than 1.4% of the
total.
>11
r E R a : Forficula (earwigs)
A (dragonflies)
*1 tera : Acrididae (grasshoppers)
>L
S.
II
C
T
St
P
P-
r
!•(
7ood of Bee-eaters
Food taken by Bee-eaters Mcrops apiasler at three breeding sites in southern Spain,
from pellet analyses
1 6 1
spring 1973,
locality (see page 159)
( dates (1973)
' weight of sample (grams)
nber of prey insects
M 1 ctidae (backswimmcrs)
era: Ccrcopidae (froghoppers)
era: unidentified beetles
1 teidae (dung beetles and chafers)
0 iae (ground beetles)
Cl jycidae (longhorn beetles)
I) iae (carnivorous water beetles)
>ae (carrion beetles)
H thilidae (silver water beetles)
Iae
onidac (weevils)
ionidae (nocturnal ground bcetlas)
tinidac (rove beetles)
itera (butterflies and moths)
(flies)
ptera : unidentified bees, etc.
ulac (ants)
(bees) : Honeybee Apis nullified
r r bees
V* ire (true wasps)
lit Idac (potter and mason wasps) ?
Cl 1 i.idac (ruby-tails)
1
nonidac (ichneumons) ?
i
JO
•era (earwigs)
(dragonflies)
it -ERA (grasshoppers, etc.)
TERA (bugs)
:ra (bugs)
iuj era (beetles)
tera (butterflies and moths)
(flics)
•tera (ants, bees, wasps, etc.)
p:
PS
I
2
3
TOTALS
29-4
2.5
• •■5
All
135
2.5
•49.4 to 13.5
"•39
18.05
6.56
36.00
736
6.08
49-44
483
821
272
1.576
328
237
2,
>•4*
15
-
32
47
26
-
73
3-4%
3
3
2
8
29
5
42
2.0%
6
I
2
9
6
7
22
1.0%
s) 4
4
6
'4
5
-
19
0.9%
-
-
I
I
I
-
*
0.1%
-
-
-
-
-
2
2
0.1%
21
12
15
48
8
2
58
2-7%
Bo
I IO
26
2l6
I I
I
- -8
io.6%
19
6
l6
4'
l6
-
57
2.7%
5
I
I
7
2
8
17
0.8%
5
4
4
■ 3
8
-
21
1.0%
1
I
I
-
2
0.1%
-
-
—
5
4
9
0.4%
-
2
2
I
3
n 1 0
0.1/0
3
-
7
IO
1 1
-
21
1.0%
-
-
-
5
5
0.2%
-
-
30
*
30
••4%
2
2
4
8
15
2
25
1.2%
-
12
-
12
2
3
19
0.9%
28
62
7
97
7
55
• 59
7-4%
3
4
28
35
2
-
37
• •7%
248
524
99
871
I 12
121
1*104
51.6%
38
60
19
117
22
21
160
7-5%
2
1 1
3
■6
I
-
17
0.8%
-
-
-
-
4
4
0.2%
-
3
-
3
-
-
3
0.1%
“
—
—
—
2
—
2
0.1%
3.1%
-
n.8%
3.0%
7.9%
-
73
3-4%
0.6%
o-4%
0.7%
0.5%
8.8%
2.1%
42
2.0%
i.a%
0.1%
0.7%
0.6%
1.8%
3-o%
22
t.O%
0.8%
0.5%
2.6%
1.0%
1.8%
-
21
1.0%
-
-
-
-
-
0.8%
2
0.1%
27-7%
16.4%
25.4%
21.4%
29.9%
6.3%
451
21.0%
0.4%
0.2%
1.5%
0.5%
4-6%
0.8%
25
«.2%
-
1-5%
-
0.8%
0.6%
2.1%
•9
0.9%
66.0%
80.9%
37.4%
72.3%
44-5%
84.8%
1,486
69.4%
Insects other than Hymcnoptera and beetles made up 9.5% of the
>tal. These were earwigs (Dermaptera: Forficula), dragonflies
Odonata), grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae), bugs (Heterop-
*ra: Pentatomidae and Notonectidae; Homoptera: Cercopidae:
ercopis), butterflies (Lepidoptera) and flies (Diptera). Of these,
irwigs were the commonest, forming 3.4% of the total and ranging
om 3.1% to 11.8% in three of the samples but entirely absent
om the other two. The remaining groups together made up 6.1%
I f the total and accounted for between 2.7 % and 17.7% in the five
imples, the most numerous being dragonflies which comprised as
1 62
Food of Bee-eaters
much as 8.8% of the prey at locality 2. Fig. 1 compares the per-
centages of the commonest prey at the three localities.
Fig. 1 . Percentage
totals of main prey
of Bee-eaters Merops
apiaster at three
breeding sites in
southern Spain (see
page 159), spring
1973, from pellet
analyses
DISCUSSION
The qualitative composition of the diet does not differ essentially
from those reported in several other European countries by, for
example, Lomont (1946), Rivoire (1947), Bastien (1957), Le Sueur
(1957), Swift (1959) and Alleijn et al. (1966). However, we have
found no mention in the literature of Bee-eaters taking earwigs,
backswimmers, homopterid bugs, nocturnal ground beetles, rove
beetles or ants in Europe. The presence of mainly terrestrial prey
such as earwigs and ants is especially notable. Although these could
have been taken on the ground, we must not reject the possibility of
the birds having caught them in flight. Swift (1959) pointed out
that Bee-eaters can sometimes take food on the ground, and lepidop-
terid caterpillars reported in the diet of Bee-eaters in Rhodesia (Fry
1 973) were obviously not caught in flight. However, such hunting
behaviour is not described at all in the general literature (e.g.
Geroudet 1951, Dementiev and Gladkov 1966-68, Valverde 1967).
Although Bee-eaters have been recorded diving into water (e.g.
Tree i960, 1961), aquatic insects, such as carnivorous and silver
water beetles and backswimmers, must have been captured in the
air while in flight.
Because all the samples analysed were collected within a short
period (15 days), the quantitative and qualitative composition of
the diets at that time of year at the three study localities could
be compared to some extent, but in our opinion the data are too few
for a full statistical treatment.
ood of Bee-eaters 163
Fig. 1 and table i show that the proportion of dragonflies in
he diet was highest at locality 2 (8.8%) and much lower at the
others (0.5% and 2.1%). This was not unexpected, since locality 2
s close to large marshlands ( marismas ) where dragonflies are wide-
pread for much of the year. Moreover, they would be even more
:ommon in the diet later in the season (Cano i960).
Beetles were commonest at localities 1 and 2 (21.4% and 29.9%
espectively), the proportion being as low as 6.3% at locality 3.
\ partial explanation may be that the land around localities 1 and 2
i s used mainly for cattle-raising, and dung beetles such as Onthophagus
nnd Aphodius can find many propitious sites there for living on
[cattle droppings. Furthermore, marshlands near locality 2 support
carnivorous and silver water beetles for the Bee-eaters’ diet. How-
ever, we can find no explanation for the strong presence of rove
oeetles at this locality, where they formed 9.1% of the entire diet,
ind their complete absence from pellets collected at the other
t wo. Presumably this difference must be due to unknown factors
1 connected with the habitat, and the same may be said about the
variation between localities in the percentage of earwigs in the
liet.
There was a considerable observed difference between localities
i n the proportion of Hymenoptera in the pellets, the highest value
toeing reached at locality 3, which also showed the greatest species
[diversity (this is not obvious from table 1, but ‘unidentified
1 Hymenoptera’, which clearly included many species, formed by far
1 he highest proportion at locality 3). This locality was the least
[disturbed by man, and the surrounding habitats were more varied
(than at the other two (see the descriptions on page 159). These
i actors may have accounted for the greater diversity of Hymenoptera
ind, perhaps, made these insects more readily available to the birds.
Thus several of the main observed differences in the diet between
i ocalities may be explained if one supports the view that Bee-eaters
:ake any available flying insect within a wide size range and do
1 lot select food. Further, human practices seem likely to exert a
.trong influence on the diet, because of inevitable changes in
i nsect populations due to agricultural management. However, as
;tated above, we believe that our data are too few for a statistical
reatment of this subject.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
*Ve must express our grateful thanks to A. Camoyan and F. Hiraldo for providing
wo of the pellet samples, and to Dr A. Soler, of the Department of Zoology,
University of Sevilla, for suggestions on the identification of insect remains and
or kind permission to see the insect collection of the Department. We are also
/ery grateful to Peter W. Hopkins, of the Estacion Biologica de Donana, for
:hecking the English translation.
164
Food of Bee-eaters
SUMMARY
Pellets of Bee-eaters Merops apiaster were collected at three nesting colonies in
western Andalusia, southern Spain, during the spring of 1973. Of the 2,141
prey insects identified in them, the great majority were Hymenoptera, Honeybees
Apis mellifica forming 51.6% and other species 17.8%. Beetles (Coleoptera, ten
families) made up 21.0% of the total, the main families involved being dung
beetles and chafers (Scarabaeidae, 10.6%) and ground beetles (Carabidae, 2.7%).
The remaining 9.5% comprised earwigs (Dermaptera: Forficula), dragonflies
(Odonata), grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae), bugs (Heteroptera : Pentato-
midae and Notonectidae; Homoptera: Cercopidae), butterflies and moths (Lepi-
doptera) and flies (Diptera), the proportions of each of these groups in the diet
ranging from 0.1% to 3.4% of the total. Several observed differences in the compo-
sition of the diet between localities are discussed, and likely influences of cattle-
raising and agriculture are pointed out.
REFERENCES
Alleijn, F., Braaksma, S., Peereboom, J. D. G., and Schendel, J. A. A. 1966,
‘Een broedgeval van de Bijeneter ( Merops apiaster) in Nederland’. Levende Nat..
69: 1-13.
Bastien, P. 1957. ‘Un cas de nidification du Guepier Merops apiaster L., en Bel-
gique’. Gerfaut, 47: 45-56.
Cano, A. i960. ‘Sobre nidificacion comunal y alimentacion del Abejaruco ( Merops
apiaster)'. Ardeola, 6: 324-326.
Dementiev, G. P., and Gladkov, N. A. 1966-68. Birds of the Soviet Union. Israel
Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, vol 1.
Fry, C. H. 1973. ‘The biology of African Bee-eaters’. Living Bird, 1 1 : 75-112.
Geroudet, P. 1951. La Vie des Oiseaux I. Les Passereaux. Du Coucou aux Corvides.
Neuchatel.
Gil Lletget, A. 1927-28. ‘Estudios sobre la alimentacion de las aves’. Bol. Soc.
Esp. Hist. Nat., 37: 81-96; 38: 1 71-194.
1944-45. ‘Base para un irukodo de estudio cientffico de la alimentacion
en las aves y resultado del an&lisis de 400 estomagos’. Bol. Soc. Esp. Hist. Nat.,
42: 177-197, 459-469, 553-564; 43: 9-23.
Le Sueur, F. 1957. ‘Bee-eaters breeding in the Channel Islands in 1956’. Brit.
Birds, 50: 361-364.
Lomont, H. 1946. ‘Contributions a lYtude biologique de la Camargue. L’exten-
sion du Merops apiaster L. en Camargue’. Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. Marseille, 6: 81-88.
Mountfort, G. 1957. ‘Nest-hole excavation by the Bee-eater’. Brit. Birds, 50:
263-267.
Rivoire, A. 1947. ‘Contribution ^ l’dtude du Merops apiaster’’. Oiseau, 17: 23-43.
Swift, J. J. 1959. ‘Le Guepier d’Europe Merops apiaster L. en Camargue’. Alauda,
27: 97-143-
Tree, A. J. ig6o. ‘Bee-eaters diving into water’. Brit. Birds, 53: 130-131.
1961. ‘Bee-eaters diving into water’. Brit. Birds, 54: 286-287.
Valverde, J. A. 1967. ‘Estructura de una comunidad mediterrinea de vertebrados
terrestres’. Cons. Sup. Inv. Cient., Madrid.
Carlos M. Herrera , Estacion Biologica de Donana, Paraguay 1, Sevilla,
Spain
Adoracion Ramirez, Alta 23, Villanueva de Cordoba, Cordoba, Spain
^otes
Two female Stone Curlews laying in one nest On 1 1 th May
968 I flushed a single Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus from a tradi-
ional nesting area on the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds’
■eserve at Dungeness, Kent. Four days later I returned to the site
nd successfully watched a Stone Curlew back to its nest, which
ontained four eggs. These obviously constituted two clutches, for
•nc pair was large and marked with heavy, dark blotches, the
second pair slightly smaller and paler, with finer streakings (plate
[ 8a). The two clutches had clearly been laid by different females.
>iince a careful watch revealed only two birds in the vicinity, and
ince at no time up to this date had I seen or heard display, I doubted
t a male was present. On several occasions when I visited the site up
o 7th June all four eggs were still being incubated, but never more
han two birds were seen and no calling was heard. On this date two
'•tone Curlews were still in the vicinity of the nest, though three
f the four eggs were cold. On 9th June, when three of the eggs were
'.'arm, two birds flew away from the area of the nest to a point some
!oo metres distant and apparently showed no interest in returning.
>ioth stood and sat there at irregular intervals, appearing to be
brooding or incubating. At one time they carried out a partial nest-
elief ceremony, one coming up behind the other, which had been
iitting and which rose and moved forward in typical manner, with
meek extended in front. Throughout this ceremony both birds were
iilent, and eventually they Hew off. On 14th June the two Stone
Curlews were back in the area of the nest, but neither was sitting and
1 11 four eggs were cold. On 21st June I could locate no birds in the
mest area; all eggs were cold and one was some 60 cm out of the
crape. The eggs were taken under a Natural Environment Research
Council licence and, from a superficial examination of the contents,
11 four appeared to be infertile (though embryonic death might
iave occurred at an early stage). The measurements (in millimetres)
■f the two clutches were 54.5 X 40.0,53.5 X 38.5; and 53.0 X 38.0,
M-5 X 38-°.
The Stone Curlew is a decreasing species at Dungeness, where it
ias not bred successfully since 1964. There were no other records
luring 1968, and I believe that the most likely explanation for the
vents described above is that two females, in the absence of a male,
lad formed a homosexual pair-bond, providing each other with
ufficient stimulus for both to go through the egg-laying and
ncubation pattern of the breeding cycle. Alternatively, the two
>irds might have been unpaired females, since I cannot be abso-
utely certain that there was no male involved during the very early
Notes
1 66
stages of site selection and egg-laying. There is a third possibility
that they were a normal pair, and that two of the eggs had been
laid by a second female that had left the area before the nest was
found. This seems to me very unlikely, owing to the birds’ com-
pletely silent behaviour (breeding pairs that I had watched pre-
viously had always been rather vocal, with one bird, that I had
assumed to be the male, doing most of the calling). R. E. Scott
Boulderwall Farm , Dungeness Road, Lydd, Kent
Unprecedented numbers of Little Gulls in Ireland Following
a period of south-easterly gales and torrential rain in early January
1974, record numbers of Little Gulls Larus minutus in Ireland
appeared on the Co. Wicklow coast. They frequented a limited
stretch and very few were reported elsewhere in Ireland.
The first were noted on 3rd January; on 5th the number rose to
15, but the gales then moderated and few remained. On 10th, when,
gale- and even storm-force winds blew afresh from the south-east,
bringing torrential rain, my wife and I counted a minimum of 62
(27 adults, 35 first- winter) along a two-kilometre stretch of coast
south of Greystones. On 1 ith O. J. Merne, travelling by train along
the coast, counted at least 86 (three-quarters adults) between Grey-
stones and a point eleven kilometres south of there. The peak,
however, came next day following another severe southerly gale:
C. D. Hutchinson and I then counted 164 along only two kilometres
of coast from Greystones southwards, and again we estimated three-
quarters to be adults. None was seen further south.
The gales continued, and on 1 6th January nine kilometres south of
Greystones I counted 60 Little Gulls coasting northwards in half an
hour; the movement was already in progress when I arrived. Adult
and first- winter birds were about equal in number. By 19th, after
an improvement in the weather, only about five were present. A
further south-easterly gale on 1st February was followed by the
appearance of 32 birds; I counted nine adults, one second-winter
and six first-winter in one gathering. Throughout, very few second-
year gulls were detected. The birds fed close in along the tideline,
just ahead of the breaking surf.
The previous highest concentration of Little Gulls in Ireland
was 45 on the very same stretch of coast on 4th February 1972 ( Irish
Bird Report, 20 : 17). R. F. Ruttledge
Doon, Newcastle, Greystones, Co. Wicklow
This species is essentially a spring and autumn migrant in Britain and Ireland,
breeding from the Netherlands, Denmark and the Baltic eastwards, and wintering
(in the North Atlantic) largely in and west of the Bay of Biscay (see Dansk Orn.
Foren. Tidsskr., 62: 126-136). Feeding flocks of any size tend to be extraordinarily
local in Britain, occurring regularly in late March-May and late J uly-Novcmber
idles
167
nly off the coasts of Angus, Perthshire and Fife, and Lancashire; elsewhere
le few three-figure counts have all been of transient flocks. Spring peaks have
lduded 204 south in only two hours past Freshfield, Lancashire, on 25th March
972; 180 at Kingoodie, Perthshire, on 26th April 1964; and a quite unpre-
idented movement of 315 east at Hurst, Hampshire, on 3rd May 1974, with 355
argely the same birds ?) east at Dungeness, Kent, next day. Autumn maxima in
various parts of Britain have included 512 at Kilconquhar Loch, Fife, on 18th and
2nd August 1963; 229 at High town, Lancashire, on 25th August 1972; 32 at
v.enfig Pool, Glamorgan, on 2nd September 1973; 106 at Dungeness on 9th Sept-
i mber 1972; 21 1 north off Teesmouth on 19th September 1973; 96 at Spurn,
orkshire, on 7th October 1971; 110 at Holme, Norfolk, on 15th October 1972;
7 off Barras Head, Cornwall, on 4th November 1971 ; and an influx of 50 at Elie
. fess, Fife, after easterly gales, as late as 1st December 1963. Even larger numbers
t f autumn migrants have occurred at Cap Gris Nez in northern France, including
ver 1,400 during 20th-22nd October 1970. The Irish flocks described by Major
! t .uttledge are remarkable not only for their size but for the date: January-February
ritish records of more than ten are rare, the largest being 7g at Rossall, Lanca-
lire, on 28th January 1970 and 137 at Freshfield on 24th February 1968 (see
I rit. Birds, 62: 385-386 for a useful discussion of Lancashire records and age
. itios). Eds
identification of Roseate Terns On 9th September 1972, at
(Lade de Brest, Finist&re, France, I had the opportunity of studying
party of four Roseate Terns Sterna dougallii for about two hours,
he party consisted of two juveniles which were still being fed
ivy two adults. Common Terns S. hirundo were also present for direct
omparison.
Firstly, one of the juveniles had a white forehead. This is at
variance with the following description given by P. J. Grant and
R. E. Scott in their paper on field identification of juvenile Sterna
1 jrns (Brit. Birds , 62 : 297-299, plate 53) : ‘Forehead never white
nd often, especially in younger individuals, only slightly paler
haan the rest of the head ; in such cases it is frequently very incon-
spicuous and often the head appears all black.’ This discrepancy is
robably due to the fact that they described only July birds, and
t; seems likely that at least some juvenile Roseate Terns develop a
' /hite forehead as they get older. The other juvenile completely
tted their description. On 1st November 1970 a Roseate Tern
a juvenile plumage at Scheveningen, Netherlands, also showed a
/hite forehead (J. Swaab, verbally). The increasing whiteness
1 the forehead in juveniles is most probably caused by wear of
ae dark feather tips, revealing progressively more of the white
■ases, though very late in the autumn some feathers may actually be
aoulted and replaced by white ones.
Secondly, I noticed that the build of the Roseate Terns, both
dults and juveniles, was unlike that of the Common Terns. The
dult Roseates lacked the long tail-streamers that are conspicuous in
pring and summer. They were more top-heavy than the Common
"erns; this was accentuated by the proportionately longer, black
Notes
1 68
bill. On the whole, their build was more like that of the Sandwich
Tern S. sandvicensis than that of the Common, a resemblance
strengthened by their whitish appearance. This useful feature is not
mentioned in the literature. The resemblance is less obvious during
spring and summer when the Roseate’s outer tail-feathers are
extremely long.
Thirdly, both adult and juvenile Roseate Terns had a consider-
ably faster and shallower wing-beat than the Common Terns. This
flight is anything but graceful and is strongly reminiscent of that of
the Little Tern S. albifrons. Most identification guides describe this
characteristic flight inadequately: descriptions are incomplete,
inconsistent or even wrong. Often reference is made to the great
buoyancy of the flight, but this is probably valid only for the
courtship display. D. A. Bannerman’s description (1962, The Birds
of the British Isles , 1 1 : 147-148) is in agreement with my observations.
I thank P. J. Grant, J. F. de Miranda and Dr J. Wattel for reading
and commenting upon an earlier draft of this note. G. J. Oreel
Instituut voor Taxonomische Zoblogie ( Zoblogisch Museum), Plantage
Middenlaan 55, Amsterdam- 100 4, Netherlands
Probable interbreeding of Common and Roseate Terns On
nth July 1973 I was photographing terns from a hide in a mixed
colony of Common Sterna hirundo , Roseate S. dougallii and Arctic S.
paradisaea on Coquet Island, Northumberland. I noticed that two
nests, both with a single egg, were each being attended by a mixed
pair consisting of a male Common and a female Roseate Tern, and
a single chick was being cared for by a third such pair.
One nest was situated in a small depression some 6 cm deep,
probably the remains of a disused excavation made by Puffins
Fratercula arctica. The ground in this part of the island was virtually
bare, except for dead vegetation and odd patches of Holcus grass.
The other nest was on level ground, and the nest site of the third
mixed pair could not be established as the chick had already moved !
into a nearby disused Puffin burrow when the pair was located. On s
Coquet Island in 1 973, some 90% of the population of about 60 pairs
of Roseate Terns nested in small depressions, or in some cases below \
ground in disused Puffin burrows. Virtually all the Common
Terns (1,700 pairs in 1973) used level sites. The three mixed pairs
together occupied a small area of some 30 square metres in a part of
the island where two-thirds of all the Roseates nested almost to
the exclusion of the other tern species.
The two pairs each with a single egg were watched from a hide
during succeeding days. The eggs were less boldly marked than the
majority of Common Tern eggs and, on the basis of their color-
ation and marking, had been thought at first to be Roseate eggs.
Notes
169
For convenience, their locations were designated e and \v (referring
to their compass directions from the hide). Egg vv hatched on 13th
July and E on 1 6th ; assuming a normal incubation period of some 23
days, the eggs would therefore have been laid about 20th and 23rd
June respectively. Both chicks, as well as the third one already-
hatched on 11th July, resembled those of Common Terns in all
respects; there were no signs of the easily recognisable coloration and
distinctive spikiness of the down of Roseate chicks.
Mating or attempted mating by pair w was seen on 13th July,
and by pair e on 19th and 21st. It was preceded by the male Com-
mon Tern bringing food. This was usually offered first to the chick;
if refused it was then taken by one of the adults. The feeding over,
either the male Common flew off or took over the brooding of the
chicks, or, as was usually the case when mating occurred, the brood-
ing Roseate came off the chick and both birds stayed in attendance
at the nest. Mating was usually initiated by the male with a ‘parading’
type of display, followed by a final close approach to the female with
bill and neck upstretched. The Roseate then adopted a soliciting
posture, with tail raised and wings partially dropped. Thus encou-
raged, the Common mounted, and after about a minute either mating
took place or the attempt was terminated. The Common either took
off directly from the Roseate’s back or indulged in some displace-
ment activities, such as grass-throwing or scrape-forming movements,
before leaving.
Incubation and feeding of the chick were shared by both male and
female approximately equally. The behaviour of the birds at the
change-over was very- similar to that of adjacent normal pairs of
terns. Male and female appeared to recognise each other’s calls —
the brooding bird, whether Common or Roseate, was frequently seen
to call to its mate flying overhead with food. There were apparently
no behavioural impediments to successful rearing.
On two occasions late in the season, around 20th July, a fourth
mixed pair of Common and Roseate Terns was seen apparently-
prospecting a nest site near the three established pairs. This in-
volved a lot of courtship, ‘parading’, and exploration of possible
nest sites. By this time most of the terns had long since hatched
chicks. It is possible that the colony contained more mixed pairs
but, as it was necessary' to watch the undisturbed birds from a hide
to establish cross-pairing, the whole island could not be covered.
In all three cases the single chick fledged, a good success rate
since at least two of the pairs had only single-egg clutches when
the nests were found. This in itself was unusual, as the average
clutch for Common Terns on the island was 2.4 with very few-
jingles, and all Roseate nests inspected (the vast majority) had two
eggs. The single-egg clutches could be explained by predation during
170
Notes
incubation, but the clutch sizes everywhere else on the island show
that this would be a curious coincidence; another possible explana-
tion is mentioned below.
A number of interpretations could be placed on these facts, none
of which can be tested without ringing to give individual and
lasting identification. The observations are most easily explained
by Common and Roseate Terns interbreeding; it seems that there is
no behavioural reason why hybrid chicks should not successfully be
reared. Alternatively it is possible that the male Common Terns had
lost their mates after the laying of the first egg (the chicks had the
external characteristics of Common Tern chicks) and had paired
with superfluous female Roseate Terns. This explanation accounts
for the exceptional single-egg clutches, but leaves a number of
questions unanswered: for example, why were the eggs laid in an
area dominated by Roseate Terns, why was one of the nests in a
typical Roseate site, and how does the prospecting mixed pair of
terns seen late in the season fit into this picture? These questions
and others seem to make interbreeding the most likely answer,
though obviously the evidence cannot be conclusive.
C. Stephen Robbins
Alexandra , Wicken Road, Clavering, Saffron Walden, Essex cbii 4QT
Letters
Cyprus cranes and English bird names It gets rather mono-
tonous writing letters to you about vernacular names, so may I
refer Sir A. Landsborough Thomson {Brit. Birds, 66: 454) and,
while we are about it, readers of Professor Dr K. H. Voous’ proposed
‘List of recent Holarctic bird species. Non-passerines’ (Ibis, 115:
612-638) to my three previous letters (Brit. Birds, 54: 405-408; 57:
436-439; 6q: 205) and document them with an example of a case
where sloppiness in the use of group names caused serious trouble ?
In the late 1950’s British servicemen in Cyprus saw a lot of
cranes, some of them definitely identified in their notes as Demoi-
selle Cranes Anthropoides virgo and others merely referred to as
‘Cranes’ or ‘cranes’, unspecified. At that time nobody had any
doubt that, in addition to the Demoiselle, the Common Crane Grus
grus occurs commonly on passage in Cyprus in the early autumn —
in fact, it was thought to be the commoner — so unspecified cranes
were usually put down under this heading. In consequence, when it
occurred to a subsequent generation to question whether Grus grus
occurs in Cyprus in the early autumn, in the Cyprus Bird Reports
for 1970, it was a little difficult to tell quite how often it had definitely
been identified; in fact, since two of the main observers were by
r
It;
h
En
hi
If
k
Letters
171
then dead and another untraceable, the only record I am certain of
is of six birds I saw myself over Lefka on 24th August 1957, when I
noticed the red on the head, in case anyone cares to question them.
It might be useful if anyone else who has records of Common Cranes
seen in Cyprus in the early autumn would make them known, too.
I fear that Sir Landsborough is not harking back far enough when
he returns to the heyday of subspecies in his search for the origin
of qualified group names. Originally most of our bird names were
applied not to species but to groups of several species wherever a
number could be confused, a practice followed for scientific names
by Linnaeus, who assigned the first ‘official’ names to genera and
then qualified them when he came to distinguish species, as, for
example, with our wagtails Motacilla ( =Wagtail) alba, Jlava and
cinerea (=White, Yellow and Grey). Is it not perhaps time we
caught up with Linnaeus (1707-1778) ?
It may be noted that the thirty-second supplement to the American
Ornithologists’ Union’s Check-List of North American Birds (Auk, 90:
4 r 1 -4 1 9) lists criteria used for modifying vernacular names (a) to
qualify group names applied to several species, (b) to facilitate
international uniformity in usage for the same species, (c) to avoid
misleading taxonomic implications, (d) to prevent confusion with
other species called by the same name, (e) to conform to usage in
areas where the bird in question is commoner, and (f) to provide
a substitute for the unsatisfactory adjective ‘common’. Also, in a
subsequent review of the British Ornithologists’ Union’s The Status
of Birds in Britain and Ireland (Auk, 90: 445-446), Stuart Keith
remarks that our names disagree with local ones for a number of
characteristic American species rare with us: thus they refer to the
White-winged rather than the Two-barred Crossbill Loxia leucoptera,
the Wood and not the Carolina Duck Aix sponsa, and the Bohemian
Waxwing Bombycilla garrulus in the presence of another species, the
Cedar Waxwing B. cedrorum. W. R. P. Bourne
University of Aberdeen, Department of Zoology, Tillydrone Avenue ,
Aberdeen ABg 2TN
English bird names May I disagree strongly with the view
expressed by Sir A. Landsborough Thomson on English bird names
(Brit. Birds, 66: 454)? The primary function of a language is to
facilitate communication, and this function is severely handicapped
wherever different words are used to express the same thing. In
effect, using the same vernacular names everywhere opens com-
munications between groups that are not accustomed to using
scientific names. It also helps in reading articles where scientific
names are not always given. In addition, we all know that scientific
names are subject to change, rather more so than vernacular names!
172
Letters
I have no objections to local bird names, but it still helps to know
whether somebody is writing or talking about an American Robin
or a European Robin. In these times of international bird study,
official unambiguous English names used consistently in field guides,
journals and other literature have a lot to be said for them. This
is not to deny that the introduction of the new names by the Ameri-
can Ornithologists’ Union will itself lead to some confusion; the
benefits can be seen only in the long run. Robert K. Furrer
Schweizerische Vogelwarte, CH-6204 Sempach , Switzerland
Reviews
Handbuch der Vogel Mitteleuropas. Vol. 5. Galliformes and
Gruiformes. Edited by U. N. Glutz von Blotzheim, with
K.M. Bauer and E. Bezzel. Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft,
Frankfurt am Main, 1973. 700 pages; 5 colour plates; 100
line-drawings and maps. DM 112.00 (subscription price
DM 95.00).
This fifth part of the central European handbook, dealing with the
Galliformes and Gruiformes, treats just 28 species in a total of 664
pages. Breeding within the central European limits set by the
authors are eight species of grouse, partridges and pheasants, and
ten of rails, crakes, coots, cranes and bustards; these form the bulk
of this volume, an average of 34 pages being devoted to each species
and an extravagant 67 pages to the Black Grouse. In addition,
several pages are devoted to each of the artificially introduced and
locally more or less (usually less) feral species, such as Reeves’s Phea-
sant and Turkey, and to the few stragglers. The latter include the
American Purple Gallinule, once recorded in Switzerland (adult
female, 1st December 1967), and Allen’s Gallinule, probably the
only truly ‘Ethiopian’ species which regularly straggles (if one may
say so) to Europe. Apart from the three main editors, more than
twelve specialists have contributed to at least part of the text of
some species, notably Peter Liips (Rock Partridge), Paul Feindt and
Peter Becker (Water Rail and crakes), and Gerhard Klafs and Hans
Winkler (Great Bustard). Further notable contributions are by
Professor E. Tretzel, who provided the sound spectrograms, and
Dr Ernst Sutter, who supplied much original data on moult and
moult sequence in gallinaceous birds.
This work is developing more and more its own unique character,
setting high standards for completeness of text and minute details
of reference. The result is a series of painstakingly detailed mono-
graphs on taxonomy, distribution, ethology and ecology of excep-
Reviews
73
tionally high value, rather than the typical ‘handbook’ treatment
in which the data are arranged and summarised for rapid use, easy
comparison and simple reference. The authors, apparently, do not
attempt to leave out any bit of knowledge or to generalise beyond
details. On the other hand, they show great persistence in continuing,
at an amazingly rapid rate, what could be considered a lifetime’s
work. Without doubt the driving force behind this truly central
European enterprise is the Swiss Urs Glutz von Blotzheim, but the
work done by the Austrian Kurt Bauer and the German Einhard
Bezzel should not be underestimated.
Among the monographs, those on the Black Grouse, Pheasant and
(Coot are of particular significance, each illustrated with excellent
line-drawings (28, 16 and 49, respectively) by F. Weick showing
movements and behaviour, as well as with numerous maps. Through-
out the volumes of this handbook there is an increasing number of
detailed illustrations of feathers depicting differences of sex and age,
but the number of colour plates is small. Of the five plates in the
present volume, that illustrating the ink-black downy chicks of
seven ralliform species is by far the most fascinating: it shows
different extents of red on the crown and at the tips of the tiny wings,
the amount of red being larger and more conspicuous the more
nidicolous the chicks are in the first days of their life (largest in the
(Coot, smallest in the Corncrake).
Even more than the previous volumes, this is a really valuable
^source, a well-documented storehouse of information for ornitho-
logists and for zoologists in general, besides being a handsomely
produced and magnificent work to consult. K. H. Voous
News and comment Robert Hudson
Tawny Owls and Pheasants The artificial rearing of Pheasants is big business,
and each summer (July- August) thousands of young birds are transferred from
covered rearing pens to roofless release pens, where they become vulnerable
to avian predators. Concerned to reduce such losses, some gamekeepers resort
to the illegal use of pole-traps. Recognising that there is a real problem, the
Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, the British Field Sports Society, the
Game Conservancy and the Gamekeepers’ Association have jointly initiated a
two-year research programme into predation on Pheasant poults by raptors,
notably Tawny Owls. It is hoped that this will lead to a better understanding of the
situation, and find an effective deterrent to predation. David Lloyd has begun
work as research biologist on the programme.
i74
News and comment
Another bird strike On 12th December 1973, at Norwich Airport, a French-
built fan-jet aircraft, carrying nine people, crashed seconds after take-off. For-
tunately, there were no serious casualties. Preliminary investigations by the Depart-
ment of Trade and Industry indicate that the accident was caused by multiple
bird strikes: the plane had flown into a flock of gulls. During the winter months,
several hundred gulls fly over Norwich Airport daily, to and from roosts on the
Norfolk Broads; the crash occurred at 3.30 p.m. as gulls were flying back to these
roosts. (Contributed by G. P. Hooton.)
Foulness Island respite As forecast in this feature in the last issue, the new
Labour Government has stopped all preparatory work on the proposed Maplin
Airport, pending a complete reappraisal of this and other major development
projects. Cancellation of Maplin Airport was promised in the Labour Party
manifesto at the last election. Conservationists are likely to be divided in opinion
on what ought to happen to Foulness Island now. I should be quite happy to
see a continuance of the military presence which has preserved the island from
major development for the last four decades.
Obituaries It is with deep regret that we have to record the recent deaths of
two prominent East Anglian ornithologists. In March we lost R. J. (Reg) Partridge,
who for the last 20 years had been warden of Havergate Island, the RSPB’s
famous Avocet reserve on the Suffolk coast. A local man, he was appointed for
(among other things) his topographical knowledge and skill with small boats —
assets which he used to good effect during the east coast floods of early 1953,
when he was awarded the British Empire Medal for a rescue exploit. He developed
a serious interest in birds early in his wardenship; due to the large numbers
of people who made the pilgrimage to see Havergate and its Avocets, he became
one of the best known, and liked, reserve wardens in the country.
It came as a great shock, in early April, when we heard that R. P. (Dick)
Bagnall-Oakeley had died suddenly, at the wheel of his car, while in Scotland
on a lecture tour for the Scottish Ornithologists’ Club. He was one of Norfolk’s
most prominent ornithologists, a schoolmaster by profession, who came to the
forefront in the early 1 950’s as a skilled photographer in still and cin6. He excited
many a lecture audience with his photographs of the numerous rarities he had
encountered in Norfolk, and he was a regular contributor of natural history items
to BBC TV East Anglia. Though not a prolific writer, he contributed many
notes to this journal over the last 30 years. At the time of his death, he was Chair-
man of the Films Sub-Committee of the RSPB, and he leaves a gap that will not
easily be filled.
Parakeets in the London area My note on this subject in ‘News and comment’
in the January issue has prompted two readers, H. B. Fossey of Woodford Green
and A. Cluff of Wanstead, to write to me with news of another colony of Ring-
necked Parakeets Psitlacula krameri in the London area. Unlike the others, this
one is north of the Thames, in the Woodford Green-Highams Park area of extreme
south-west Essex. Apparently parakeets have been present there at least since
1 97 1 (probably earlier), and in increasing numbers, 22 being the largest flock
noticed so far. Feral breeding is assumed to have occurred; there is not yet formal
proof of this, though Mr Fossey watched a pair prospecting a hole in an oak tree
over several weeks in 1973.
Pesticide residues in eggs A recent paper by Dr David Peakall in the American
journal Science (183: 673-674) has demonstrated for the first time the presence
of pesticide residues in Peregrine eggs dating from the very beginning of the
pesticide era. Five eggs taken in California during 1948-50 weighed 3.188 to
News and comment
»75
3.964 gm, and had detectable leveb of residues in their dried shell membranes.
A control series of eggs taken in California between 1894 and 1940 (before insecti-
cides came into general use) was pesticide-free and weighed significantly more
(4.062-5.120 gm). Dr Peakall’s technique was to fill the eggshells with a mixture
of diethyl ether and petroleum, and maintain them at 45°C for four hours; the
solvent was then removed, and the organochlorine residues measured by gas-
liquid chromatography, dde (a metabolite of ddt) was found at levels calculated
to have been 22 to 200 parts per million on a lipid basis, indicating that as early
as 1948 dde was present in Peregrine eggs in sufficient concentrations to account
for eggshell thinning.
Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds
January reports D. A. Christie
These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
This feature will continue to appear every month, though under a new title. The commoner
species will generally be omitted from the main text, but will be summarised periodically ;
where appropriate, there will also be a monthly ‘ stop press' at the end. We are grateful to the
many local societies and individuals who kindly send us their bulletins and lists of recent
sightings from which this feature is compiled. There are still gaps in coverage, however,
and we appeal especially to coastal ringing groups, migration watchers and seawatchers to
send us monthly summaries of their more interesting records.
The first day of the New Year was the only cold day of the month, with heavy
overnight frost and freezing fog, but this very quickly changed as a continuous
series of deep depressions crossed the North Atlantic, bringing warm air from
the south-west. On many day's these low-pressure systems produced heavy rain
and high winds, particularly in southern parts of Britain, where south-westerly
gales dominated the January weather picture.
Coinciding with high winds and unusually abundant shoals of herrings and
sprats, large numbers of divers were present in the North Sea. Offshore gat-
herings of Red-throated Divers Gavia stellata included 120 at Shellness (Kent)
on 6th and 1 19 at Teesmouth (Co. Durham/Yorkshire) on 1 ith. In Northumber-
land movement was recorded of all three regular species: at Seaton Sluice/St
Mary’s Island 19 hours of watching between 3rd and 10th produced totals of
36 Black-throated G. arctica and eleven Great Northern G. immer, all flying
south, and over 500 Red-throated and unidentified divers, again mainly flying
south; the majority of 132 divers during I2th-i3th flew south, and 185 north
on 27th. Gannets Sula bassana were also plentiful at the same place, 350 moving
north and 65 south on seven dates up to 26th, while a Manx Shearwater Puffinus
puffmus heading south on 5th was quite unexpected. A few storm-driven seabirds
were found inland: single Shags Phalacrocorax aristotelis at Walthamstow and
Girling Reservoirs (Essex) from 5th and at Cheddar Reservoir (Somerset) on
8th; an unidentified petrel at Wraysbury Reservoir (Middlesex) on 14th; two
Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis at Walton Dam, Chesterfield (Derbyshire), on 16th
which finally flew off north-west (the second county record) ; and a Gannet on
floodwater on Wet Moor (Somerset) on 25th.
An immature female King Eider Somateria spectabilis was found dead at Fenham
Flats (Northumberland) on nth, and the drake Steller’s Eider Polysticta stelleri
at Vorran, South Uist (Outer Flebrides) (Brit. Birds, 66: 338) was reported to be
still present during January. Few Smew Mergus albellus were reported, about 35
1 76 January reports
from ten places, the highest count being a very low maximum of twelve at Brent
Reservoir (Middlesex). Counts of certain sea-ducks and the commoner geese
will be included in a later summary, but it is worth noting here that the large
flock of Bean Geese Anser f abatis in east Norfolk (Brit. Birds, 67:131) had dropped
to 80 by 30th and singles were found in January at three other places.
Single Red Kites Milvas milvus were reported at Cunningdale (Derbyshire) on
1 3th and in the Iver/Black Park area of Buckinghamshire during the second week
of the month. Overwintering waders included a Little Ringed Plover Charadrius
dubius at Manor Farm, Reading (Berkshire), from 20th, ten Whimbrel Numenius
phaeopus at Capel Fleet (Kent) on 2nd and a maximum of six on Alderney on 14th,
a Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea at Woodbridge (Suffolk) on 8th, and
single Grey Phalaropes Phalaropus fulicarius at Poulshot, Devizes (Wiltshire),
from 15th to 17th (feeding on worms in shallow water on the village green) and
at Fort le Crocq (Guernsey) from 1 7th to 20th.
Great Skuas Stercorarius skua were noted singly at Dungeness (Kent), off the
Hampshire coast, and at Cheddar Reservoir and Steart (Somerset), while 16
flew east at Portland Bill (Dorset) about 10th. In Northumberland a Pomarine
Skua S. pomarinus flew south at Bamburgh on 20th and possibly the same bird
went north at Seaton Sluice on 26th. Two Arctic Skuas S. parasiticus were at
Teesmouth on nth, with eleven there the next day, one moved east at Reculver
(Kent) on 13th, and there were 56 sightings of this species off Seaton Sluice/
St Mary’s Island up to 26th.
Glaucous Larus hyperboreus, Iceland L. glaucoides and Mediterranean Gulls
L. rnelanocephalus will be summarised later. Single Little Gulls L. minutus were
at Amble (Northumberland) on 12th, at Staines Reservoir (Middlesex) on
1 6th and at Blackpill (Glamorgan) from 29th, and one was found dead at Felix-
stowe (Suffolk) on 26th; in the Greystones area of the Co. Wicklow coast un-
precedented numbers reached a maximum of at least 164 on 12th (see note on
pages 166-167). At Dungeness peak numbers of Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla were
800 on 1 1 th. A Black Guillemot Cepphus grylle was in Carrick Roads (Cornwall)
from 27th (cf. Brit. Birds, 66: 179), but the only Little Auk Plautus alle reported
to us was one flying south at St Mary’s Island on 3rd. There were 540 indeterminate
auks at Teesmouth on 1 1 th, and in southerly movements at Seaton Sluice/St
Mary’s Island 1,700 were counted between 3rd and 12th.
A Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur was reported at Staines Moor on 27th, and the
final word belongs to a Rose-coloured Starling Sturnus roseus discovered at
Waterston (Pembrokeshire) on 2nd.
STOP PRESS
Recent reports include an albatross at Portland Bill on 28th April; a White-
billed Diver, a Surf Scoter and two King Eiders at Golspie (Sutherland) in mid-
April; a Glossy Ibis at Swanscombe (Kent) from 1 ith April to at least 4th May;
American Wigeons at Eye Brook Reservoir (Leicestershire/Rutland) from 18th
April to early May and at Welney (Norfolk) on 19th April; a Killdeer at Pagham
Harbour (Sussex) about 13th April; a Terek Sandpiper at Radipole Lake (Dorset)
on 6th-7th May; a third Ring-billed Gull (this time a sub-adult) at Blackpill
from 27th April to at least 6th May; and a male Subalpine Warbler at Lower
Bodham (Norfolk) on 10th April.
Photographs of 1973 rarities Good quality black-and-white prints of accepted
1973 rarities are required for possible publication with the ‘Report on rare
birds in Great Britain in 1973’ later this year. The species, place and date, and
the photographer’s name and address, should be given on the back of each print.
All photographs should be sent to the editorial office at Bedford by 21st June.
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11
Volume 67 Number 5 May 1974
A further review of the problem of ‘escapes’
M. D. England
INTRODUCTION
During the twelve months ending 31st December 1972, 791,979
birds passed through the hands of the staff of the Royal Society for
the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals’ Hostel for Animals at London
(Heathrow) Airport on arrival from abroad by plane. (Rather less
than 100,000 of these were day-old chicks which are disregarded
in this discussion.)
It must be stressed that this was the number passing through the
Hostel and not the total number of birds arriving at the airport,
since only certain categories of consignments of animals are usually
taken to the Hostel : most of those in transit and for which there may
be considerable delay before a flight is scheduled for the continuance
of their journey (some airlines will accept animals only for a further
‘leg’ of a journey if they have been checked at the Hostel) ; those
which the addressee has specifically asked the RSPCA to look after;
those which the airport staff have noticed contain an unusually high
proportion of dead or dying birds or appear especially to need care;
those not claimed within a reasonable time; and those in cages or
boxes which are broken. A small proportion of birds in transit are
transferred to an outgoing flight (especially if it be of the same air-
line as the flight by which they arrived), without passing through
the Hostel. It should be mentioned in passing that, of those in tran-
sit which are destined for Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium,
not a few will be re-exported back to this country. The majority of
those addressed to recipients in Britain are taken direct to the freight
sheds in the cargo centre and are collected by the addressee (or his
agent), again without passing through RSPCA hands. Despite this,
177
1 78 The problem of ‘ escapes'
107,859 birds whose journeys terminated in Britain did pass through
the Hostel in 1972, making the (unknown) total for Britain a matter
for the mind to boggle at indeed. The grand total number of birds
arriving at Heathrow Airport during that year is thus also at present
unknown (although it is hoped that such figures may be made
available in the not too distant future), but it can be seen that it is
unlikely to be less than 1,000,000 and may be much greater.
Although Heathrow handles the greater part of the traffic from
overseas, other British airports must not be forgotten. For example,
birds from the Far East intended for north-west England are
usually sent via Manchester, this route often being via Germany
and missing London, and the number is probably higher than it is
usually thought to be. Nowadays few are sent by boat for any great
distance, although some cross the English Channel in this way.
If to this vast annual figure be added the unknown, but obviously
huge, number of birds already in captivity in Britain and also those
in captivity on the Continent (but see later), it is perhaps super-
fluous to add that there must be a risk of a not inconsiderable number
escaping and surviving in the wild long enough to stand a chance of
being seen by and causing confusion to British birdwatchers. It has
been claimed (Blackwell 1972) that ‘each week dozens escape’,
although no supporting evidence was given.
The majority of British ornithologists probably have little know-
ledge of what has unfortunately but aptly been called ‘the appalling
bird trade’, or indeed of aviculture, and thus find themselves in no
position to assess the likelihood or otherwise of a ‘rarity’ having
escaped from captivity. The purpose of this paper is to try in some
measure to help by giving an outline of the species and sources of
imported birds and some guidance on assessing particular cases of
suspected escape. A paper on the same subject and covering much
of the same ground has appeared before in this journal (Goodwin
1956). This has been at the same time a help and an embarrassment:
a help for reasons which will be obvious to those familiar with it, an
embarrassment because it has appeared presumptuous to attempt
to ‘paint the lily’. Hence the title of the present paper.
It is inevitable that some information, especially that regarding
sources and species, will be out of date even before publication,
because the position changes continually as more exporting countries
impose welcome restrictions and fresh sources open up as a result.
Some species which were readily and cheaply obtainable a year or
two ago are now never seen. Especially to those readers who already
have some knowledge, much of the material may appear redundant
or irrelevant, but it has been included in order to give background
to the subject.
‘Assisted passage’ has not been dealt with because it is considered
The problem of ‘escapes'
*79
to be outside the scope of this paper. However, the ‘importation’ of
albatrosses by members of the crew of Scandinavian whaling vessels
must be mentioned. Although I have no personal experience of this
and can find no published reference, it is frequently said that
albatrosses and other similar birds are reared as pets while ships are
in southern waters and, proving an embarrassment on arrival at
the home port, are liberated to fend for themselves.
SOURCES AND DESTINATIONS
The birds reaching Britain from abroad — whether for the British
market, for re-export, or in transit — come from all over the world,
but the greatest numbers come from Asia (Bangkok, Calcutta and
Singapore providing immense numbers) and many parts of Africa.
In parentheses it is fair to say, and a matter for congratulation, that
some African countries take considerable trouble to prevent undesir-
able exploitation of their wild birds for export purposes. For
example, Kenya allows trapping and export only under individual
licence, with the result that birds from that country are rarely to be
acquired in Britain through dealers or on the open market. Unfor-
tunately the neighbours of such enlightened countries are not always
so careful (Boyle 1970) and the number of birds exported from Africa
as a whole is very large indeed. Until recently South America was
among the largest exporters, but during the autumn of 1973 a con-
siderable and very welcome (and it is to be hoped permanent)
reduction took place as a result of some of the better-informed
countries imposing restrictions.
While in many countries trapping and export continue despite
government measures or because officials turn a blind eye, it is
greatly to be deplored that the contrary is true in Thailand (see
Martin 1973). Here the government has recently published a
report entitled Animal Exportation from Thailand in 1962-71 (using the
word ‘animals’ in its correct sense, to include birds). This is a
horrifying document, as the following brief quotation will show:
‘Wild animals make up one of the natural resources of the country
which are of value to the economy ... In the past, Thailand has
received millions of Baht income from the exportation of wild
animals alone. Many species are in demand and therefore com-
mercial business dealing with wild animals seems to be a real
promising one.’ It is understood that a similar situation exists in
North Korea.
As mentioned above, no accurate figures are at present available
of the total number which are intended for sale in Britain and of
those destined for other countries, although the evidence suggests
that the latter greatly exceed the former. While birds which are to
remain in Britain obviously present a much greater escape risk,
1 80 The problem of ‘ escapes'
those in transit cannot be ignored, because accidents can and do
occur at airports. For example, at a British airport recently, the
driver of a van containing crates of birds en route from plane to
reception sheds noticed that a box was broken and that birds were
escaping from it into the van. On going to report this he left the doors
of the van open , with the result that later examination showed the
box and the van to be almost empty.
Restrictive legislation has been so successfully implemented
in North America that very few birds indeed are imported into this
country from there, although no legislation can prevent migration
and a few North American breeding species are exported from their
winter quarters in Central and South America (see pages 190- 192).
This is something for which the assessors of British records may be
very thankful, since North American birds have always been regar-
ded as among the greatest escape/ vagrant problems. However, one
cannot be dogmatic even about North American birds, because
smuggling is not unknown and licences are occasionally issued for the
export of certain species: for example, one British aviculturist is
known to have a licence, granted in the United States, to export
Sandhill Cranes Grus canadensis for his own use in Britain.
Although the total is not large, a surprising number of European
birds are imported into Britain and this trade appears to be increas-
ing, if only in a small way. Again, with a few exceptions to be
mentioned later, it is not illegal in British law although it all too
often contravenes the ill-implemented laws of the countries of
origin. Unfortunately from a British record point of view, these are
mainly rare or unusual species : for example, Rollers Coracias garrulus
are popular, as are — surprisingly — small warblers such as the
Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans.
A large proportion of the birds arriving and unloaded at Heath-
row Airport — and to some extent at other British airports — are in
transit, a great many being en route for Germany and a surprising
number for Italy. Those whose journey ends in Britain are intended
for zoological gardens, ‘wildlife parks’, private aviculturists and,
especially, the pet trade.
There are about 4,000 pet shops in Britain. Not all of these sell
many birds (a few, none at all), although some sell nothing else. As
distinct from the shops, there are a large number of dealers whose
premises range from a small spare room or garden shed to stores of
considerable size and accommodating many thousands of birds.
(In one back street in London is an establishment, known to
few save the initiated, which claims with some truth always to have
60,000 birds in stock.) Although irrelevant to this discussion, it is
distressing to note that it is not exclusively the dealers with large
premises who deal in large birds, since it is not unknown for about
The problem of ‘ escapes' 1 8 1
50 cranes to be packed into a room no larger than a bathroom.
Lest the impression be given that all dealers in animals and
their premises are as deplorable as unfortunately many of them are,
it must be added that the Pet Trade Association — with a member-
ship of 800 — is striving hard to improve matters and has instituted a
form of voluntary examination which covers not only the housing
and feeding of animals but the law regarding them. It is understood
that they are trying to obtain statutory legislation to control the
animal trade.
IMPORTATION AND THE LAW'
In various places in this paper the legality or otherwise of exports
and imports has been mentioned and, at the risk of repetition,
it may be useful to summarise the present position. It does not
seem appropriate here to discuss the taking or keeping of British
birds in Britain, the law regarding which should in any case be well
known.
Briefly, there is at present no ban on importing into England,
Wales or Scotland any species of live bird except ducks, geese, birds
of prey (including owls), partridges, quail, pheasants, guineafowl,
and all domestic fowls and turkeys. A licence is required, specifying
the species and number, for all birds of prey and owls for conserva-
tion reasons, and for all the others for health reasons. Quail Coturnix
coturnix arc an anomaly in that they come under both headings and
two licences are required for them. A limited number of licences
to import birds of prey are issued to falconers, zoos and private
aviculturists, and in general licences are issued more freely for the
other birds. A ban on the importation of parrots except under
licence, hitherto in force, was unfortunately withdrawn several
years ago. Northern Ireland is rather more enlightened and,
in addition to conservation restrictions in respect of live birds of
prey (including owls) identical to those applicable in Great Britain,
licences are required for health reasons to import almost all species
of live birds from ostriches to hummingbirds.
Britain has therefore a virtually open door, but this of course
does not mean that the birds which enter so freely have left their
country of origin equally within the law. North America and
Kenya have already been mentioned as applying restrictions on
export; a number of other countries attempt to control export of
their wildlife in varying degrees ranging from a total ban to expres-
sions of pious hope which are in practice meaningless.
The greater part of the large British trade in birds is therefore
at present within the law. However, on 2nd March 1973 the ‘Con-
vention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora’, drafted by the International Union for the
182
The problem of ’'escapes1
Conservation of Nature, was signed by representatives of 23 of the
88 countries attending. Others agreed in principle but did not
immediately sign. Unfortunately it does not come into effect until
at least ten nations have ratified it; however, the fact that a number
of countries have already signed it shows at least their eventual
intention of ratifying it, and it is greatly to be hoped that Britain will
be among the early nations to do so.
When it becomes effective, this Convention will control the trade
in three categories of endangered species of animals and plants.
A virtually total ban will be imposed on the export and import of
some 400 species in the first category, except in very special circum-
stances. Restrictions on trade in species in the second category will
be somewhat less strict, but they will require an export permit
from their country of origin. The third category is to enable any
country to impose restrictions on the export of its own fauna and
flora if those particular species do not come within the first or
second lists.
Few will doubt that the signing and ratification of this Conven-
tion by a worthwhile number of countries and its eventual effective
implementation will be a great milestone in the history of conserva-
tion. In the context of this paper, however, it must be pointed out
that it is unlikely to have a significant effect on the problem of
escapes.
MEANS OF ESCAPE
While it is quite impossible even to hazard a guess at the number
of birds which escape from captivity in Britain, it is perhaps useful
to discuss briefly how and whence they do so.
Except for those comparatively few which are privately imported
and personally collected at airports, most of the immigrants pass
through a number of hands between the plane which had brought
them to this country and the eventual owner. However carefully
they are packed — and this is by no means always the case, many
packing-cases or cages being very frail — hazards attend almost
every move: removal from aircraft to vehicle, from vehicle to arrival
shed, examination, removal to appropriate depot for collection or
re-embarkation, even well-meant attempts to give food or water, all
may give chances of escape. They may need re-packing at the air-
port, they will be transported by road either direct to a wholesaler
or to a railway station en route for one. On arrival they will be
unpacked and caged, only to be re-packed again and sent, again by
road or rail, to a dealer or pet shop. Thence they will go, usually
in a small cardboard box, to their eventual owner. The tricky lids of
these boxes present difficulty even to experienced aviculturists,
especially when there is more than one bird in the box, although
ol
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The problem of ‘escapes' 1 83
they usually remember to close the windows of the room when
transferring a bird from box to cage, which the inexperienced very
frequently do not.
Wire-netting corrodes, leaving holes; aviary doors may be left
open; birds will whistle past one’s elbow during feeding or cleaning.
A very frequent source of strangers flying free is the keeper of birds
in unroofed pens who, although he knows that they should all be
permanently pinioned, has merely clipped their wings before the
moult and has put off re-clipping some of them after the moult until
it is too late. Undoubtedly not a few birds are deliberately set free
because their owners have lost interest in them or are unable to
look after them, or because they hope they will remain in the garden
if they are fed. Apart from wildfowl, these are almost always com-
mon foreign birds such as waxbills, munias or weavers which are
unlikely to be of significance in the present context, however unde-
sirable the practice may be in the light of possible colonisation.
Some are given partial liberty in order to find suitable food for
young being reared in an aviary (Anon 1969). There have been a
few examples of the release of British species in fresh or deserted
localities (e.g. Nuthatch Sitta europaea in London) and of winter
visitors retained in captivity until after the time of migration in the
hope that they will breed in this country when released (e.g. Red-
wing Turdus iliacus, Fieldfare T. pilaris).
While it is apparent that there may be many occasions during
the captive life of a bird when escape is possible, the risk of escape
must not be exaggerated. It should be added that it is remarkable
how many birds, having escaped from an aviary, spend a great
deal of their time trying to get back into it, and in a high proportion
of cases it is only when they have moved so far away that they have
lost the ability to orientate themselves that they really begin to
wander. Although a still-captive mate or companion obviously
provides an inducement to try to rejoin it, in many cases the
familiar environment of the aviary and its association with food
will prevent wandering, and perhaps even more so will the desire
to return to an accustomed roost. However, many — probably
most — escapes occur from places where the surroundings are
unfamiliar, and in such cases wandering is inevitable. Sometimes
these birds find a congenial (if unnatural) habitat such as a garden
where food is regularly provided for wild birds, and it is common-
place for them to be reported as being regular visitors over long
periods. Generally, escaped and wandering birds tend to search for
the type of habitat from which they came when wild, although this
is more apparent in the case of large birds (pelicans to estuaries,
storks and cranes to fields or marshes, and so on) ; during their
wanderings, however, they may turn up in the most unlikely places.
184
The problem of ‘ escapes'
LOCALITY
Except in the few large areas of Britain uninhabited by man
(or nearly so), birds are kept everywhere and escapes may be seen
anywhere. More often than not it is impossible to trace the origin
of a suspected escape, although there are the exceptional and
obvious cases where, for example, a crane is seen within a few
kilometres of a zoo which has lost one.
Despite this, the locality in which a bird is seen is of relevance
when considering a record. At first sight it may seem that a bird is
likely to be wild if it be recorded, for example, on Fair Isle or in the
Isles of Scilly. It is, however, interesting that a number of known
escapes have turned up in just such extremities of Britain. (This may
be partly due to intensive coverage: few birds which land, for
example, on Fair Isle during the hours of daylight are likely to go
unrecorded.) Goodwin (1956) told of a Barbary Dove Streptopelia
roseogrisea which, having disappeared from his garden in Surrey,
turned up in Co. Wexford at the Tuskar Rock lighthouse a fortnight
later. Escapes may reasonably be expected to appear at such places
while attempting to migrate or while wandering. However, it would
be unreasonable not to regard as at least circumstantially good
evidence for wild origin the fact that Land’s End or the Welsh coast
was the place where a certain small North American bird was seen,
or Fair Isle a Siberian one.
Their alleged occurrence in south-east England undoubtedly
added considerably to the plausibility of the ‘Hastings Rarities’;
would they have been so readily accepted had it been claimed that
they were all ‘obtained’ near Manchester? Similarly, an eastern
European or Asian vagrant, if it came to Britain, might be expected
to arrive somewhere in the eastern half of the country, although
that is not to say that it will necessarily be first reported from
there. Place is relevant, perhaps important, but certainly not con-
clusive.
The huge consignments of birds passing through London Airport
and destined for the Continent have already been mentioned. It is
all too easy to think of escapes seen in Britain as originating from
captivity in this country, whereas of course continental dealers
and bird-keepers are hardly likely to be more careful of their
charges, and there is in fact a wider selection of species available
from continental dealers. Further, although the Continent has not
been spread recently with such a rash of ‘wildlife parks’ as has
Britain, the large collections in private estates appear to have
survived better over there than here. The Continent of Europe
must therefore be regarded as a most fruitful source of escapes —
especially of larger birds — and the south and south-east coasts of
England are their likely areas of arrival.
The problem of ‘ escapes'
185
LITERATURE AND INFORMATION
It is remarkably difficult to obtain information about escaped
birds and it is too frequently made more so by the apparently
inevitable time-lag between the bird’s being seen and requests for
information reaching the right people. There is no publication which
completely bridges this gap, although the weekly magazine Cage
and Aviary Birds probably comes nearest to doing so, and its editor
has expressed willingness to publish both losses and reports of birds
seen which are doubtfully wild. However, on the occasions when
this has been done little useful has come of it, presumably because
(though most aspects of bird-keeping are occasionally dealt with
in its pages) the majority of the magazine’s readers are interested
primarily in canaries, parrots and the common British finches, or in
bird shows, and unfortunately very few indeed are field ornitholo-
gists. To give credit where it is due, it is obviously current editorial
policy to stimulate a greater and wider interest by publishing articles
on birds in the wild with increasing frequency.
Unfortunately curators of zoos and similar places, with a few
notable and welcome exceptions who have given every possible
assistance, tend to adopt a couldn’t-care-less attitude to the effect of
escapes on field records. It is probable also that some escapes go
unreported because of the reluctance of an employee to admit care-
lessness. The Zoo Federation News (published by the Federation of
Zoological Gardens of Great Britain and Ireland), despite the co-
operation of its editor, is published too infrequently to achieve very
much, although such help as it can give is very welcome. The
Avicultural Magazine, published every two months, has already
printed an appeal for help (England 1970) and is the journal most
likely to reach the more serious aviculturists. Indeed, its readers
volunteered information about two escaped birds, a Barred Warbler
Sylvia tiisoria and a Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola, neither
of which was recorded in the field !
Importers and dealers, from whom a large number of birds may be
presumed to escape, are — as might perhaps be expected — very
mixed in their attitude to the problem. The writer has had courteous
but usually negative replies from a few, while requests to others have
been completely ignored. Some withhold information for fear that it
is being sought in order to bring home an infringement of the law
to which, unfortunately, they do not always adhere so carefully as
they should; for example, records of Black Kites Milvus migrans
have been troublesome for this reason. In any case, even if informa-
tion were forthcoming from some dealers it would be of doubtful
value because of their inaccuracy in naming the birds which they
offer for sale.
On the Continent, Paul Yicomte de la Panouse, Secretarv-general
1 86 The problem of 'escapes'
of the Association Nationale de Parcs et Jardins Zoologiques
Prives, has proved helpful and very willing to assist (though so far
negatively) ; people holding somewhat similar positions in other
countries have, on the whole, been as helpful as they were able;
while Professor Doctor Heinz-Georg Klos, representing the Berlin
zoos, has never failed to respond to appeals for help.
Most unfortunately, again with one or two notable exceptions,
the least helpful of all are breeders of wildfowl, who are not only
responsible for a great many escapes but appear to care little for
their effect on records. Further, it is well known that many favour
deliberate releases, while not infrequently articles are published
advocating the keeping of full-winged ‘liberty birds’ (see, for
example, D’Eath 1973).
It must in fairness be added that such escapes are not always
deliberate nor due to carelessness. While this paper was in draft
several Ring-necked Ducks Aythya collaris were flying around the
neighbourhood of my home in Norfolk. These came from a local
breeder who is not only aware of, but deplores, the effect of escaped
birds on field records. The Ring-necked Duck is not a very free
breeder in captivity and those which escaped were some of a brood
hatched in a dense reed-bed in one of his pens and which avoided all
attempts to catch and pinion them. Much the same happened with
the American Black Duck Anas rubripes. As their owner said, ‘The
only way to stop them confusing the records would be to shoot them,
and would you really want me to do that ?’
I am therefore reluctantly of the opinion that, save in very
special circumstances, practically all records of wildfowl can
only be regarded as suspect, because of the very large numbers
being kept and bred in captivity of almost all the species which are
likely to be recorded wild; because the majority of these are kept
in open pens and by no means all are permanently pinioned;
because many are kept free-flying (while still being fed) or are
deliberately released into the wild; and because many breeders of
such birds are not interested in field records.
STATE OF PLUMAGE AND SOFT PARTS
It is often said that a particular bird cannot have escaped from
captivity because it was in perfect plumage when seen. An extension
of this idea is that birds reared in captivity are never the equals
in size, plumage or health of wild ones.
Taking the second point first, it can safely be asserted that it is
a quite unjustified generalisation and is unsafe as a criterion so
far as escapes are concerned. In some cases it is unhappily true;
some Australian ‘grass parakeets’, for example, have for so many
generations been bred in inadequate conditions or have become so
The problem of "escapes' 187
inbred that many offered for sale in this country are mere shadows of
their wild relatives. On the other hand, aviary-bred specimens of
some well-known birds look to a field ornithologist almost ‘too good
to be true’.
Perfection of plumage is even more unsafe as evidence of wildness
and is an unfortunate indication of ignorance about aviculture. It is,
however, quite reasonable to use the opposite argument, namely
that the state of the plumage of a given bird was so poor that it may
have escaped from captivity, for the following reasons. First, most
wild birds (accidents apart) keep their plumage in remarkably good
condition except at certain times, for example after the stress of
rearing a family or during a heavy moult; indeed they must do so to
survive. There are certain exceptions (see also later), perhaps the
best example being the Sacred Ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus. In the
wild, the black ‘plumes’ of this bird always tend to look unkempt,
even immediately after preening, and one might well be excused
for thinking that it has recently escaped from rather squalid captivity.
Second, many escapes take place during or shortly after arrival
in this country. While a very few exporters from other countries
take a great deal of trouble over the birds in their care, as regards
both health and packing for transportation, the majority, unfor-
tunately, care no further than that the birds should arrive alive
(and not always that). As a result freshly imported birds may be in a
very bedraggled state due to sticky food, dirty and overcrowded
boxes, and the ‘bird-lime’ with which they have been caught and
which is usually lost only after a complete moult. All too often their
lot in the hands of dealers after arrival is little better, although it may
justly be said that a few dealers have an enviable reputation for
keeping and supplying birds in first-class order.
Further — and this is one of the safer criteria — a bird showing
wear about the face is more likely to have acquired this through
trying to escape from captivity than in the wild. However, an
experienced observer will beware of applying this, for example,
to bee-eaters at hole-boring time, or to fruit-eaters such as thrushes,
since in both cases the plumage of the face may temporarily get into
a deplorable state, though not usually so much so that loss of
feathers takes place, less still that bare patches will be seen around
the base of the bill. For a detailed discussion of worn or broken
wing-feathers see Goodwin (1956).
It is usually true that a badly worn or bedraggled tail is more
likely to be seen on an escaped bird than on a wild one. It is not
only frightened and closely confined birds which spoil the ends of
their tails in their efforts to escape or from sheer lack of space;
tame or fearless birds in large aviaries frequently break up their
tails through clinging to wire netting in attempting to reach human
1 88 The problem of 'escapes'
beings whom they know to be potential providers of food. Some
birds, such as rollers, are inveterate wire-clingers and may be the
despair of those who try to keep them in good plumage. This is not
often seen in the wild; broken, loose or missing tail-feathers may
frequently be encountered, but not worn tail ends except in some
immature birds and birds of prey. Not infrequently a photograph of
a wild bird of prey is spoilt because the end of the tail is, to say the
least, untidy. Steppe or Tawny Eagles Aquila rapax and Black Kites,
among others, seem especially prone to this disfigurement.
It is thus safer to use the argument of bad plumage as evidence
of escape than that of good plumage as evidence of wildness, with
certain exceptions. The state of the bill and claws may be useful
points: both may become overgrown in captivity as a result of an
absence of those conditions which lead to wear; and it is not uncom-
mon for small birds which have been caged for a long time to have
claws so long that they experience difficulty in taking off from a
perch. However, excessive growth of the bill, which is relatively easy
to see, is less common than overgrown claws, which may be impos-
sible to note except in the hand. In addition, overgrown and abnor-
mal bills occur in the wild (Pomeroy 1962). Although deformed
toes are not unknown in wild birds (being common, for example, in
feral pigeons Columba livia ), birds captured with ‘bird-lime’ not
infrequently have distorted digits (sometimes grossly so) with lumps
or swellings on or between the joints. Somewhat similar lesions may
appear as a result of unsuitable food, perches or floor material.
These seldom completely recover. Scaly legs may be seen both
in wild birds (Blackmore and Keymer 1969) and — probably more
commonly — in captive ones, and are usually due to infestation with
a mite, although they may appear with old age.
Hitherto, a messy ventral area or repeated jerky motions of a
bird attempting to defaecate were indications of the likelihood of
unsuitable food in captivity but, although such points should not be
ignored, contamination of the environment has unfortunately ren-
dered them less useful as evidence than formerly.
The colour, as distinct from the quality, of a bird’s plumage is
sometimes useful evidence but must be treated with caution. It is
well known that some birds tend to lose the red in their plumage in
captivity; this occurs, for example, in Linnets Acanthis cannabina and
Rose-coloured Starlings Sturnus roseus. Although useful, this is not
completely reliable; as has been mentioned, many birds escape
shortly after being imported when their colours have not had time
to deteriorate. On the other hand, my only experience of the Rose-
coloured Starling in the field was of a very tatty-looking specimen
with a complete absence of ‘rose’; however, since it was in a clearing
in the Indian forest it was not likely to have escaped.
The problem of ‘ escapes'
189
APPROACH ABILITY
Tameness, approachability and fearlessness, although similar,
are not necessarily the same and in any case must obviously be con-
sidered in relation to the particular species. For example, while a
phalarope would be expected to allow an approach to within ten
metres, a Peregrine Falco peregrinus which did this is hardly likely
to be a healthy wild one. With certain exceptions, and provided
there is no reason to suppose that it has just completed a long flight
across the sea, an alert bird which allows an unreasonably close
approach may be considered to be suspect. However, hunger, ex-
haustion, sickness and injury must not be forgotten, since they govern
approachability to a great extent, and in my view this is at best
an uncertain guide, although of course it is useful as an addition
to the total of the evidence to be considered.
FAMILIES AND SPECIES IMPORTED
It has been said that, given sufficient financial resources, it would
be possible to obtain in Britain any species of bird in the world.
This is, unfortunately, not far from the truth, although there are
some which would prove very difficult indeed, either because — how-
ever good avicultural techniques have become — they are unlikely
to survive the journey from their native land (or indeed survive
captivity at all), or because they are few in number in the wild and
sufficiently localised and well protected to make trapping and export
well-nigh impossible. An obvious example of the latter is the Takahe
Notornis mantelli of New Zealand. However, it must be noted that
rareness, of itself, is no safeguard that a species will not reach Britain
in a captive state: for example, a pair of wild-trapped Siberian
White Cranes Grtis leucogeranus, which are, of course, very much
in the '’Red. List', were recently imported for a private collection.
However, such birds do not concern us here, and it is almost
certainly true to say that any species likely to cause escape confusion
in Britain is obtainable by a determined importer.
Stated baldly like this, it appears to make the problem of escapes
insoluble and it must hastily be added that, although all may be
possible, fortunately only few are likely.
In attempting to compile a list of species which might be, or
might be mistaken for, wild vagrants and which are imported into
Britain or the adjacent parts of the Continent in numbers sufficient
to make them an ‘escape risk’, it cannot too often be repeated that
the position is continually changing and that the availability of
species ebbs and flows. The following birds, therefore, are those
currently being imported (or known recently to have been) w’hich
may cause confusion either in their own specific right or because
they may be said to resemble possible immigrants, even though such
i go The problem of ‘escapes'
a mistake appears unlikely in the extreme to an experienced person.
Ducks and geese have been omitted for reasons given above, although
it may not be out of place to repeat the classic warning about
reporting Ruddy Ducks Oxyura jamaicensis, which are now fairly
common in Britain in a feral state, as White-headed Ducks 0.
leucocephala. Species which are imported so seldom, or in such small
numbers, as to make the risk of escape negligible have been omitted,
although this must not be taken to mean that such a thing is
impossible. To avoid constant repetition of such phrases as ‘moderate
numbers’, ‘only occasionally’, and so on, the numbers i, 2, 3 and 4
have been used to indicate very roughly the relative numbers being
imported from the area named (/ meaning few, 4 very many),
although it will be appreciated that numbers alone do not accurately
indicate the likelihood of escape. For example, an escape is more
likely from among ten pelicans, which are often only wing-clipped
and kept in open pens, than from four times that number of rollers,
which are always in cages or aviaries. Countries named are prob-
able areas of origin.
Pelicans Pelecanus spp. (America, Africa and Asia 2). Mainly White P. onocrotalus
and Dalmatian P. crispus.
Purple Heron Ardea purpurea (Asia /).
Little Egret Egretta garzetta (Asia 2, Africa /) .
Great White Egret Egretta alba (Asia 2, Africa /).
Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloides (Africa /).
Indian Pond Heron Ardeola gravii (Asia /). More commonly imported than
Squacco, especially out of breeding season. Great care needed to distinguish the
two species.
Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis (Africa and Asia 2).
Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax (mainly Asia 2). It should be noted that there
is a free-flying colony at Edinburgh Zoo.
White Stork Ciconia ciconia (Africa, Asia and Europe 2).
Black Stork Ciconia nigra (Africa and Asia /).
Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia (Asia 2).
African Spoonbill Platalea alba (Africa /). Has red face.
Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus (Africa and Asia 2).
Flamingos Phoenicopterus spp. (America, Africa and Asia 3) . All species have been
imported, the Greater Flamingo P. ruber quite commonly.
Birds of prey. See page 193.
Crane Grus grus (Asia /). Surprisingly few imported.
Sarus Crane Grus antigone (Asia 2). Common in captivity.
Demoiselle Crane Anlhropoides virgo (Asia 2).
Purple Gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio (Asia 2, Africa 1). The Indian race poliocephalus
is the one most commonly imported, but this has a greyish head and is easily
distinguishable from the nominate form.
Allen’s Gallinule Porphyrula alleni (Africa /).
(Various rails and gallinules are frequently available from Central and South
America and from Asia, most of which are hardly likely to be confused with
species which might occur as genuine vagrants. However, consignments occa-
sionally include such species as Sora Rail Porzana Carolina, even if only in small
numbers.)
The problem of '‘escapes' i 9 1
Great Bustard Otis tarda. Private importations only; a few pinioned birds on
Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire.
Kori Bustard Ardeotis kori. A few in captivity (and not expensive in African dealers’
lists), which should be remembered when a possible Great Bustard is seen.
Spur-winged Plover Vanellus spinosus (Asia 2, Africa /). Breeds freely in captivity,
and in Lancashire has been reared by incubator in surprising numbers.
Three-banded Plover Charadrius tricollaris (Africa 1). Might be confused with
Killdeer C. vociferus but is much smaller (size of Ringed Plover C. hiaticula)
and has red eye-ring and very conspicuous red base to bill.
Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus (Asia 2, Africa /).
Pratincoles Glareola spp. More imported than might be expected, chiefly from Asia,
though perhaps a few from Africa. Rarely correctly named by dealers, sometimes
called ‘Eastern Pratincoles’. Probably chiefly Collared G. pratincola or Eastern
Collared G. maldivarum, but Black-winged G. nordmanni not impossible.
Rufous Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis (Asia /). Intermittent, often wrongly
named in dealers’ lists.
Namaqua Dove Oena capensis (Africa /).
(Budgerigar Melopsittacus undulatus and Ring-necked Parakeet Psittacula krameri.
Colonies of both species breeding at liberty at several places in Britain.)
Owls. See page 193.
Bee-eaters. Various species imported from Africa and India, chiefly those unlikely
to occur wild, although there are quite a number of European Bee-eaters Merops
apiaster in captivity in Britain. The colour of the last-named tends to fade
considerably.
Roller Coracias garrulus (Spain /).
Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis (Asia 2). Easily confused with Roller, but
adults have reddish, not blue, face and breast; juveniles more difficult.
White-bellied Black Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis (Asia /). White belly distin-
guishes this species from the Black Woodpecker D. martius.
Azure-winged Magpie Cyanopica cyanus (Iberia /). Being bred in captivity.
Crested Tit Parus cristatus. Seldom imported, but see next species.
Yellow-cheeked Tit Parus xanthogenys (Asia 3). Might be mistaken for Crested
Tit, but has yellow cheeks and variable black band down belly.
American Robin Turdus migratorius. Very seldom imported.
Whistling Thrush Myophonus caeruleus (sometimes called Blue or Violet Whistling
Thrush or even simply Blue Thrush) (Asia /). Might be mistaken for Blue Rock
Thrush (sec below), but is larger, slimmer, and usually appears very dark
except in brilliant light; very shy. Attempted to breed in Upper Wcardale, Co.
Durham, in 1970 — probably deliberately released (Dr H. M. S. Blair in lilt.).
Rock Thrush Monticola saxatilis (Spain, Italy and Africa /).
Blue-headed Rock Thrush Monticola cinclorhynchus (Asia 2). Has black eyestripe,
rufous rump, white patch on dark wings.
Chestnut-bellied Rock Thrush Monticola rufiventris (Asia 2). Larger than preceding
species, with no rufous on rump and no white in wings. (African rock thrushes
are seldom imported.)
Blue Rock Thrush Monticola solitarius (Asia /). Mostly M. s. pandoo, which is slightly
smaller and darker (less blue) and generally a duller-looking bird than the
nominate European race. See also Whistling Thrush above.
Red-flanked Bluetail Tarsiger cyanurus (Asia 1 — very few). See also Rainbow
Bunting on page 192.
Spotted Morning Warbler Cichladusa guttata (Africa /). Has bred in England
several times. Actually a thrush, and might be confused with some other thrushes,
possibly Hermit Thrush Hylocichla guttata, but has more upright, flycatcher-like
stance.
Red-spotted Bluethroat Luscinia svecica svecica (also L. s. pallidogularis and L. s.
1 92 The problem of ‘ escapes'
‘robusta’ (Asia 2) . Throat pattern of males very variable.
Siberian Rubythroat Luscinia calliope. See next species.
Himalayan Rubythroat Luscinia pectoralis (Asia 2) . More commonly imported than
Siberian. Has black surrounding the ‘ruby’ throat.
Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa latirostris and Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficeduta parva.
Formerly fairly frequent from Asia, less now, but a few included among batches
of small flycatchers (mainly blue with red and brown — e.g. Tickell’s Blue Fly-
catcher Niltava tickelliae) which are still commonly imported. The females of
some of these are very confusing.
Wagtails Motacilla spp. (Asia 2-3). Some confusing black- and grey-headed
examples. See also next species.
Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola (Asia /).
Shrikes Lanius spp. (Asia /). Chiefly Great Grey L. excubitor, Bay- backed L. vittatus
and Rufous-backed or Black-headed L. schach: last two should be considered if
unfamiliar shrike is seen.
Rose-coloured Starling Sturnus roseus (Asia 2) Does not deserve its reputation
as ‘inevitably an escape’, though possible. Dullness or absence of pink not a
sure criterion for captive origin. Not a ready breeder in captivity, so immatures
less suspect.
Bobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorus (America /).
Yellow-headed Blackbird Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus (America 2).
Yellow-headed Marsh Blackbird (also known as Yellow-hooded (Marsh) Blackbird)
Agelaius icterocephalus (America 2). Not to be confused with Xanthocephalus
xanthocephalus, which is more likely to occur as a vagrant.
Red-winged Blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus (America /).
Baltimore Oriole Icterus galbula (America 1). Intermittent.
Evening Grosbeak Hesperiphona vespertina (America 2).
Serin Serinus serinus. Very seldom imported, but see next species.
Green Singing Finch Serinus mozambicus (Africa 4). Male diffexs from Serin in
well-marked facial pattern; female more easily confused. Tail not forked.
Scarlet Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus (Asia 3).
Scarlet Tanager Piranga olivacea (America 2).
Summer Tanager Piranga rubra (America /).
Red-headed Bunting Emberiza bruniceps (Asia 4).
Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala (Asia 2).
Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola (Asia 1-2).
Rock Bunting (African) Emberiza tahapisi (Africa 2). Dark throat and less barring in
wings than in Rock Bunting E. cia.
Cardinal Richmondena cardinalis (America 2).
Rose-breasted Grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus (America 2) .
Blue Grosbeak Guiraca caerulea (America 2).
Indigo Bunting Passerina cyanea (America 2) .
Lazuli Bunting Passerina amoena (America 2).
Painted Bunting Passerina ciris (America 1).
Rainbow Bunting Passerina lechlancheri (America 2). Has orange breast on arrival,
but this soon fades in captivity (unless bird fed on insects, which is very seldom
the case), and confusion then possible with Red-flanked Bluetail on plumage
characters.
Yellow-throated Sparrow Pelronia xanthocollis (Asia 2). Slimmer and neater than
Rock SpaiTow P.petronia, but has yellow throat and rather similar body markings.
Bill much finer: looks ‘insectivorous’ in field.
Domestic Canaries S. canaria are now produced in so many colours
and sizes that they should be remembered when an unrecognisable
193
The problem of ‘ escapes'
finch- or bunting-like bird is reported. Colour-feeding is common
and colours may range from red and chestnut to green and yellow,
with or without dark markings. Streaking is common and the rump
is often yellow. Various finch hybrids and canary-finch ‘mules’ are
surprisingly popular and very numerous, but in most a trace of
Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis , Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula or Linnet
will be apparent (the red ‘blaze’ of the Goldfinch is seldom completely
lost) and snatches of song may reveal the parentage. However, any
of these birds may be puzzling in the field, and those considered
useless for show purposes are not infrequently liberated.
BIRDS OF PREY AND OWLS
Since 1 970 it has been illegal to import into Britain, without a licence
from the Home Office specifying the species and number, all birds
of prey and owls. Despite these restrictions a considerable number
are still appearing on the market. However, the Continent is
probably one of the main sources of escapes of such species. The
commonest eagle is almost certainly the Tawny, although some
Spotted Aquila clanga or Lesser Spotted A. pomarina (not necessarily
distinguished! appear from time to time. Various vultures are in
surprising demand, as arc Black Kites, the latter mainly from
Asia though a few are of the African yellow-billed forms.
The two most difficult owls are the Scops Otus scops and Eagle
Owls Bubo bubo. Before the restrictions were imposed, very large
numbers of scops owls of various species and subspecies were impor-
ted (one dealer in the Midlands was receiving 100 a week) and the
Continent still receives a number. The main forms involved were
Otus scops (Asia /), the White-faced Scops 0. leucotis (Africa /), the
Bare-toed (or Bare-legged) Scops 0. bakkamoena glabripes (South
China and Taiwan /), and, commonest of all, other races of 0.
bakkamoena , known as Collared Scops Owls, which are very variable
in colour and might even be mistaken for the Screech Owl 0. asio of
North America. The eagle owls are also very difficult. Many are (or
were) imported and a number are bred in captivity each year.
Several species are involved, not all so easily identifiable as might be
thought. In addition, the Brown Fish-Owl Ketupa zeylonensis came in
from southern Asia in some numbers and was often euphemistically
named ‘Great Horned Owl’ by dealers.
OTHER GROUPS AND GENERAL COMMENTS
It will be noticed that no divers, grebes or seabirds appear in this
list (although a very small number of gulls are imported and a fair
number — chiefly common species — are kept in some of the larger
collections). Nightjars, swifts and hirundines are also absent,
chiefly because they do not appear very suitable for aviary life,
194
The problem of ''escapes'
although swallows and martins which fall from the nest and are
hand-reared do surprisingly well and may live to a considerable
age. Larks and pipits are not very popular and, most fortunately,
neither waders nor warblers come from America in sufficient
numbers to raise serious doubts, except in a very few species.
Dealers’ lists offering birds for sale may be misleading in two
ways. First, because a certain species is listed and priced it does
not necessarily follow that it is actually in stock; it may merely
indicate that it is obtainable on demand, either from its country of
origin or from that avian clearing-house Bangkok or, more likely,
from a wholesaler on the Continent. A very undesirable corollary
to this is the advertiser who offers to obtain to order especially
difficult or rare species. Second, many birds are listed under
euphemistic names (see, for example, Great Horned Owl above),
some in order to make them sound more attractive, others because
the dealer has no idea what they are and has to invent likely-sound-
ing names. (The fact that a particular species is ordered is no
guarantee that the birds which arrive bear any resemblance to what
has been asked for.) Not infrequently males and females of the same
species are listed as two different species; and where the male of a
species is colourful and the female drab, importations often consist
of practically nothing but males (as in the Red-headed Bunting).
It is my opinion that, while in the last resort each suspected
case must be considered on it merits, the risk of vagrants being in
fact escaped birds is not so great as is sometimes imagined, except
in a few cases such as pelicans, herons, egrets, storks, flamingos,
waterfowl and birds of prey. The ‘problem of escapes’ thus arises
from the fact that the very wide range of imported species necessarily
means that almost every recorded rarity is, to however infinitesimal
a degree, tainted with suspicion, and I do not pretend that I have
been able to remove this suspicion. However, some comfort may be
taken from the fact that, with the exceptions named above, I find
it necessary to question from an escape point of view only a very
small proportion of the records submitted to the Rarities Committee.
A NOTE ON AVICULTURE
It will not have needed much imagination for the reader to have
become aware of the fact that I am very much opposed to the almost
worldwide and to a large extent unrestricted traffic in wild birds.
I might add that I am equally opposed to the keeping of birds in
small cages for any length of time. The advertisement pages of such
a journal as Cage and Aviary Birds cannot fail to appal anyone with
the slightest interest in conservation, nor indeed any thoughtful
person with a conscience at all.
However, I am an aviculturist and I should indeed be doing a
The problem of ‘ escapes' 1 95
disservice to my fellow aviculturists and to the minority of conscient-
ious dealers were I to write no more than the paragraph above. It
would be difficult to find better words than those used by Seth-
Smith (1964) as a dictionary definition of aviculture. What he wrote
cannot be quoted in full here, but his opening sentences give an
indication of his theme: ‘aviculture: term applied to the practice
of keeping birds of wild species in aviaries or enclosures, with
the object of studying their habits and, if possible, inducing them to
breed successfully under conditions as nearly as practicable approa-
ching those found in nature ...’.It must be admitted that in elabo-
rating his excellent definition he tended to consider the subject
(perhaps properly in the context) only from the point of view of its
advantages and wrote nothing of the fact that a considerable number
of ornithologists and probably more of ‘bird-lovers’ are opposed to
the keeping of birds in captivity in any circumstances. This is not
the place to embark on a discussion on the ethics of bird-keeping, but
it seems appropriate at least to make some attempt to present briefly
a balanced picture.
It is difficult to understand how anyone can fail to be appalled
at the widespread depletion of wild stock that is going on, or at the
conditions in which birds are trapped and transported. Harrowing
details would be out of place here: suffice it to say that huge numbers
of birds arrive in Europe dead or dying and that a great many more
which are just alive on arrival have suffered so much that they will
shortly die even in the hands of the most expert aviculturist, hands
into which they stand very little chance of falling.
Fortunately the picture is not all black. Some of the better public
zoological collections and a very few private aviculturists import
their birds personally direct from a reputable trapper or dealer in
the country of origin. The birds are ordered — under licence where
necessary — by species and often in pairs only, from people who
are prepared to take trouble to ensure that trapped birds are feeding
properly, are in good health, are properly packed for travelling
(with instructions for feeding) and are despatched by a suitable
route in the care of an airline with a reputation for reliability in the
handling of livestock. In such cases it is the ride rather than the
exception for the birds to arrive in immaculate condition.
Also on the credit side it is not necessary to look further than
Britain — although valuable work is being done on the Continent, in
the United States and elsewhere — to find examples of aviculture so
obviously advantageous as to make sweeping condemnation
ridiculous. The work of Professor W. H. Thorpe and others at
Cambridge on song (e.g. Thorpe 1961) and of the Wildfowl Trust
in saving the apparently doomed Hawaiian Goose Branta sandvicensis
show that it is not going too far to sav that, for the full under-
1 96 The problem of ‘ escapes’
standing of birds and for the ultimate benefit of the avifauna of the
world, a certain amount of aviculture in the true sense of the word
is essential.
Following from this it would be all too easy to adopt a holier-
than-thou attitude and suggest that bird-keeping is permissible
only if it serves an immediate and obvious scientific purpose. But
who is to say that it is wrong for a few pairs of common birds to be
kept in an aviary for the sheer pleasure which they give ? Somehow the
decimation must be controlled: rarities must be protected; the
implementation of international legislation is desperately needed to
prevent the recurrence of such events as the arrival in England of
the cranes mentioned above. But there are far worse things which
the owner of the few common birds might be doing and, since he
must already be a lover of birds, it may be only a short step for him
to join the ranks of the conservationists.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
M. H. Whittaker, in charge of the RSPCA Hostel for Animals at Heathrow, has
been most helpful in providing information, and T. P. Inskipp, at present under-
taking a survey of the question of imported and captive birds on behalf of the Royal
Society for the Protection of Birds, has allowed full use of his notes and the informa-
tion which he has so far gathered, and has proved helpful in discussion. B. Riley
has willingly answered many questions about the sources of imported birds. I gladly
express my thanks to a gentleman in the Department of Customs and Excise, who
prefers to remain anonymous, for advising on and checking the section on the law.
To James Ferguson-Lees must go a great deal of the credit for the fact that this
paper was ever completed, since only his continual persuasion overcame the
reluctance to rewrite, time after time, matter which became out of date before it
could be published. I am grateful to Peter Olney for taking considerable trouble
in helping me to avoid mistakes and irrelevancies. Most of all, thanks are due to
Stanley Cramp for reading through more than one draft and making many
invaluable suggestions for improvement.
SUMMARY
The problem of escapes and its magnitude are discussed and some indication
of numbers and sources given. Methods of escape are outlined and various aids
to differentiation between wild and escaped birds are suggested. A list of birds
imported which may occur as wild vagrants, and others which may be confused
with these, is included. There is a brief comment on aviculture.
REFERENCES
Anon, 1969. ‘Editorial. Aviculture and the introduction of non-native species’.
Avic. Mag., 75: 70-71.
Blackmore, D. K., and Keymer, I. F. 1969. ‘Cutaneous diseases of wild birds in
Britain’. Brit. Birds, 62: 316-331.
Blackwell, K. 1972. ‘Escapes’. Northamptonshire and Soke of Peterborough Bird
Report 1971: 3.
Boyle, C. L. 1970. ‘Control of the importation of wildlife’. Report to ICBP
Conference.
D’Eath, J. O. 1973. ‘On keeping free-winged waterfowl’. Avic. Mag., 79: 70-73.
England, M. D. 1970. ‘“Escapes”’. Avic. A'lag., 76: 150-152.
The problem of 'escapes' 197
Goodwin, D. 1956. ‘The problem of birds escaping from captivity’. Brit. Birds,
49= 339-349-
Martin, R. M. 1973. ‘The plight of Thailand’s birdlife’. Avic. Mag., 79: 131-136.
Pomeroy, D. E. 1962. ‘Birds with abnormal bills’. Brit. Birds, 55: 49-72.
Richardson, R. A. i960. ‘The trade in birds and its effect on British ornithology’.
(Unpublished.)
Seth-Smith, D. 1964. ‘Aviculture’ in A New Dictionary of Birds, edited by A.
Landsborough Thomson. London, pp 75-76.
Thorpe, W. H. 1961. Bird-Song. Cambridge.
M. D. England , Mashobra, Neatishead, Norwich nor 37Z
More examples of the best recent work by
British bird-photographers
Plates 2g-f6
It is now fifteen years since we first published this annual feature
on the best contemporary black-and-white bird photographs,
and during that time we have shown 137 species by 72 photo-
graphers. Although we show the work of only two new photographers
on this occasion, ten of the fourteen photographs are of species not
published before. As we have already mentioned, the photographic
process is not permanent and after perhaps 60 or 70 years the
majority of photographs taken during this decade will no longer be
in existence.
A record number of 203 prints was submitted by 41 photographers
and we much regret bring unable to publish more of them. In our
choice we have been influenced partly by whether we have already
used photographs of the species concerned. For instance, five ex-
cellent pictures of Barn Owls Tyto alba have appeared in the series;
this time no fewer than seven were sent to us, several of which were
very fine indeed, but we decided that it would be more sensible to
give preference to species not shown before.
Some of the work submitted was not of the highest photographic
quality but was of outstanding interest for one reason or another.
We hope to publish a selection of such prints at a future date.
Another point of interest is that eight of the fourteen photographs
on plates 29-36 were taken away from the nest, an encouraging
trend. There is still a great deal of work to be done on birds flying,
feeding, displaying, and so on, and obtaining such pictures is
nearly always a greater challenge than taking portraits at the nest.
As we mentioned last year, we have published very few photo-
graphs of warblers in this series — in fact, only seven, of five species.
It is therefore appropriate to start this selection with a shot of a
1 98 Recent work by British bird-photographers
Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus palustris taken in Somerset by G. H. E.
Young (plate 29). This shows the bird and its straggly nest very
well indeed. We always look forward to seeing the work of David
Gowans because it is usually very different from the general run of
bird photographs : his Barnacle Geese Branta leucopsis in flight (plate
30a), with a scattering of snow on the mountains of Wester Ross
forming a wild background, is no exception. By complete contrast
we show Bill Paton’s perfect portrait of a single Canada Goose
B. canadensis stepping ashore from an Ayrshire loch (plate 30b).
Brian and Sheila Bottomley can always be counted upon to produce
something out of the ordinary, and again they have not failed us
this year. Their Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos pulling a
worm out of the mud, with the wind ruffling some shoulder feathers,
is a fine example (plate 31a). One of the two photographers new to
this series is Rodney Dawson, who visited the Coto Donana in
southern Spain in September 1972 and secured a shot of a Little
Egret Egretta gargetta with a Dytiscus water beetle in its bill (plate
31b). We hope to be able to publish more of his photographs in
future selections.
The next three pictures are all of birds at their nests. It would
be almost impossible to obtain a better portrait of a Purple Heron
Ardea purpurea than the one by Dr Kevin Carlson shown on plate 32 —
the clearing of the nest has been skilfully done and everything is
in critical focus. The second photographer new to the series is
Bryan Sage, who has been taking bird photographs for many years.
His pair of Long-tailed Skuas Stercorarius longicaudus at their nest
(plate 33a), taken on the Arctic Slope of Alaska, is in the finest
tradition of bird photography. An almost perfect match for this
photograph is Dr David Cooke’s superb pair of Arctic Terns Sterna
paradisaea (plate 33b).
We cannot imagine anything more difficult to photograph than a
Swift Apus apus in flight (plate 34a), and indeed can recall only
two previous good examples, one of which was taken before the war
by John Barlee. It is a great achievement by Keith Atkin not only
to get a photograph at all, but to succeed in getting a highlight
in the eye and detail in the wings. The shot was taken from the
open concrete bank of Covenham Reservoir in Lincolnshire.
During the past year or two Frank Blackburn has been using a
1,000 mm mirror lens for some of his photographs of birds, and
his picture of a male Crossbill Loxia curvirostra taken from a distance
of ten metres (plate 34b) just shows what can be done. Roy Blewitt’s
work on Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus is now familiar to us all —
we published a series in colour and monochrome only last June —
but the example we now show (plate 35a) is quite remarkable
in that it depicts the cock flying from the nest after visiting the
Plate 29. Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus palustris, Somerset. June 1967 \G. H. E.
Young) (pages 197-199)
Plate 30. Above, flock of Barnacle Geese Pranta leucopsis against mountains
and moorland, Wester Ross, December 1972 [photo: David A. Gowans). Below,
Canada Goose B. canadensis by an Ayrshire loch, April 1973 ( photo : William S. Paton )
Plate 31. Above, juvenile Common Sandpiper Tonga hx pole tuns pulling worm.
Cornwall, September 1970 (photo: J. B. anti S. Bottomlex . Below. I.ittle Egret Egretta
garzelta with Dytiscus water beetle, Spain. September 1972 (photo: Rodney Dawson)
Plate 32. Purple Heron Ardea purpurea , Portugal, May 1973 {Kevin J. V. Carlson )
Plate 33. Above, pair of Long-tailed Skuas Slercorarius longicaudus at nest, Alaska,
June 1971 {photo: Byran L. Sage). Below, pair of Arctic Terns Sterna para-
disaea at nest. North Uist, Outer Hebrides, also June 1971 photo: l). .1. P. Cooke
Plate 34. Above, Swift Apus apus, Lincolnshire, June 1973 {photo: Keith Atkin).
Below, male Crossbill Loxia curvirostra photographed while accompanying his mate
during nest-building operations, Surrey, April 1973 {photo: Frank V. Blackburn )
Plate 35. Above, male Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus II
female, Staffordshire, May 1973 (photo: R. J. C. Blei
Magpie Cvanopica cyanus at hidden nest, Portugal. June
VA 'f TW ^
■ \ m
fl
Plate 36. Above, herd of 26 Whooper Swans Cygnus cygnus walking across the
surface of a frozen lake, Lancashire, February 1973 {photo: Dennis Green). Below,
Red-legged Partridge Alectoris rufa , Suffolk, July 1973 {photo: S. C. Porter)
5V* ■. t
d
4
■kl . V
' ..Jf •
'**• aJ
Recent work by British bird-photographers 199
incubating hen. His reactions to catch the bird before it left the
field of view must have been extremely fast.
We hope that the time will soon come when we can reproduce
part of this feature in colour: a species such as the Azure-winged
Magpie Cyanopica cyanus (plate 35b), for example, would look far
better in colour than it does in black-and-white. Dr Rudolf Carlson
has managed to obtain a beautiful portrait, though in this instance
the nest was not in an easy situation for photography. We like
Dennis Green’s quiet study of Whooper Swans Cygnus cygnus walking
on a frozen lake on a cold, misty February day in Lancashire (plate
36a) ; and lastly we show Stanley Porter’s close-up of a Red-legged
Partridge Alectoris rufa, a shy gamebird that is far from easy to
photograph.
The selection this year was more difficult than ever. We hope that
photographers whose work we were unable to include will not be
discouraged from continuing to submit their best results, and we
ask for prints for next year’s selection to be sent to us not later
than 1 8th February 1975.
In conclusion we should like to remind all bird-photographers
that birds on Schedule 1 of the Protection of Birds Act 1967 (listed
in Brit. Birds, 61: 215; 64: 189) may not be disturbed at the nest
unless approval is first obtained from the Nature Conservancy
Council at 12 Hope Terrace, Edinburgh Eng 2 as. Eric Hosking
Breeding biology of the Buzzard in Speyside
jV. Picozzi and D. Weir
INTRODUCTION
This paper gives data on breeding by Buzzards Buteo buteo in 1 7,800
hectares of the Spey valley, east Inverness-shire, between Kingussie
and Boat of Garten. Most work was done during 1969-72, supple-
menting an earlier study by DW from 1964 to 1968. Other aspects
of the study dealing with population dynamics and the effects of
social behaviour on density and distribution will be described
elsewhere.
STUDY AREA
The River Spey runs 27 km south-west to north-east through the
study area, falling from 222 metres above sea-level at Kingussie
to 205 metres at Boat of Garten. The boundaries were the 380-metre
200
Buzzards in Spey side
(1,250-foot) contour on either side of the valley, as only exception-
ally were Buzzards known to nest above that altitude, together with
natural features at the south-west end and a combination of natural
features and an arbitrary boundary at the north-east end. The aver-
age width of the valley between the 380-metre contours is about
6.5 km.
The study area is a good habitat for Buzzards, as there are suitable
nesting woods throughout it, a wide variety of land use which ensures
a diversity of prey, plenty of open areas for hunting, and an uneven
terrain leading to good soaring conditions.
HISTORY OF THE BUZZARD IN SPEYSIDE
Buzzards were once common in the neighbourhood of the study area
wherever there were suitable tree or cliff nest sites (Harvie-Brown
and Buckley 1 895) , but by 1 850 they bred rarely, probably because
of severe persecution by gamekeepers (Moore 1957). Records
from Glengarry, a large upland valley in the Central Highlands
comparable with the study area, listed 285 Buzzards killed between
1837 and 1840 {Gazetteer of Scotland, 1853). During 1919-30 S. Gordon
{in litt .) saw few birds and found no nests. D. Nethersole-Thompson
{in litt.), who lived in the area, knew of one nest from that period but
of no others until 1945. Subsequently, Buzzards increased: in 1955
only one breeding pair was known on an estate where there were
five in our study (A. Forbes-Leith, verbally), and DW noted an
increase throughout Speyside during 1964-68. Our study was thus
of a once-common resident which was lost as a breeding species
in the 19th century, probably through severe persecution, but which
recolonised the study area in the late ig4o’s.
METHODS
Finding nests
Nests were first found by systematically searching woodlands, and
only rarely by watching adults which were soon lost to sight within
woods and seldom seen carrying material. Occasionally the approxi-
mate position of a nest was indicated by spring displays of the male
which ended with a steep dive into a wood. We aimed to visit all
known sites in each territory in mid-March and again in early
April. If none of the known nests in a territory had been occupied
by late April, a thorough search was made for a new one, but
failure to find a built-up nest was not taken as conclusive evidence
of non-breeding. A pair was assumed to have failed early in incuba-
tion if there were no eggs or young but the nest cup was filled with
green material, the lining was compressed and there was much
down on the nest edge. Searches for a repeat nest were made
following known early nest failures, and all territories were revisited
201
Buzzards in Spey side
in July or August when fledged young were very noisy and could
be heard for up to r km from the nest.
Nest inspection
We visited nests at two-week intervals, inspecting those in difficult
trees with a mirror measuring 20 cm X 15 cm attached to a light
aluminium pole (Milstein el al. 1970) to minimise disturbance.
The pole was in 1.5-metre sections and extended to 15 metres. Most
nests could be reached and the contents clearly seen from the
ground. As it was possible to complete a visit in 15 minutes, we
caused relatively little disturbance in the critical period of laying and
early incubation. All trees were climbed when the brood was old
enough to ring and colour mark. The number of sections in the pole
and the length of the safety rope used during climbs enabled us to
assess the height of nests above ground.
Mapping of territories
In each year of the study, Buzzard territories were plotted on an
Ordnance Survey map. Full details will be published elsewhere.
RESULTS
Nest locations
We knew of 96 nest sites in 1969, and 164 by the end of the study;
this averaged about five per territory. Of 102 lined nests (nests used
in more than one year being counted only once), 62% were in
Scots pine Pinus sylvestris, 19% in birch Betula, 5% in oak Quercus,
4% in larch Larix decidua, 3% each in alder Alntis glutinosa and Nor-
way spruce Picea abies, and 1% in sycamore Acer pseudoplatanus,
Corsican pine Pinus nigra and beech Fagus sylvatica, and on a crag.
In 1969 and 1970, 25% of the nests used were in new sites, and in
1971 and 1972 about 40% were new. Possibly our activities caused
the increased use of new sites.
Scots pine was the commonest tree by far in our study area, so
that, even if nest site selection by Buzzards was random with
respect to tree species, it would have been chosen most frequently.
However, it certainly appeared to be preferred to birch, since,
although half the territories contained apparently suitable birches,
two-thirds of the nests were in pines and only one-fifth in birches.
Dare (1961) in Devon, and Joensen (1968) in Denmark, also con-
cluded that conifers, which were not common in their study areas,
were preferred to hardwoods.
The mean height above ground for a sample of 50 occupied nests
was 11 metres (range 4.6-21.4 metres). Nests were usually close
to the main trunk and up to a metre or more in both depth and
diameter. Most were lined with green foliage, usually pine, larch or
202
Buzzards in Speyside
birch, which was renewed until the young fledged. Dry bracken
Pteridium aquilinum was sometimes used instead of green material.
New nests were often built on dreys of Red Squirrels Sciurus vulgaris
or old nests of Crows Corvus corone. Most nest trees (about 85%)
were on a slope: this was almost inevitable in many territories, but
it also gave easy access to the nest from plucking posts which were
always uphill from the nest. Most nests were within 50 metres
of the woodland edge or, if situated further in a wood, were near a
ride or clearing.
In six territories, the nests used within each territory in successive
years of the study were less than 0.5 km apart, but in all other terri-
tories there was no general pattern; the nest in any year could be
adjacent to that of the previous year or up to 2.7 km from it. The
spacing of nests between territories in any one year showed no
consistent pattern.
Causes of breeding failure
The 65 breeding failures during the study (table 1) represented 45%
of the possible 145 nestings (this latter figure including known
repeat nests and territories with two females present) . Eight failures
certainly resulted from the deliberate destruction of nests and adults
by man and there was strong circumstantial evidence of this to
explain a further 23 failures. People were responsible directly and
indirectly for another twelve failures. The cause of failure was un-
known in 20 territories: in some no nesting activity was recorded,
and in others nests were lined but apparently no eggs were laid.
Most of these probably represented non-breeding. One desertion was
caused by a Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos which partly built a late
Table 1. Causes of nest failure of Buzzards Buteo buteo in Speyside, 1969-72
Percent
Cause
1969 1970
1971
1972
TOTALS
of total
Egg collectors
I
I
-
-
2
3
Other birds
-
I
-
1
2
3
Casual disturbance
-
2
1
1
4
6
Probably deliberate disturbance
5
7
5
6
23
35
Forest operations
-
2
3
1
6
9
One bird shot or poisoned,
or nest shot through base
2
,
2
3
8
12
Unknown
7
2
8
3
20
3i
Total breeding failures
15
l6
>9
!5
65
IOO
Total nests possible
(iticl. known repeats and bigamy)
32
36
4i
36
H5
Percent breeding failures
47
44
46
42
45
203
Buzzards in Speyside
nest on a Buzzard nest with chicks, in the only shared nest wood in
the study area; and another was presumed to be associated with an
i egg from a Mallard Anas platyrhynchos found among the clutch. The
loss of a single egg from a clutch was noted four times and in each
case the cause was unknown.
Destruction and disturbance of Buzzards by man is widespread
and was the chief cause of breeding failure in our study, and in
studies in Germany (Wendland 1952, Mebs 1964) and the New
Forest, Hampshire (Tubbs 1972).
Bigamy
Cases of one male mated to two females were recorded twice in 1970,
twice in 1971 and once in 1972. DW had two earlier records, both
in 1967, in Territories 14 and 30. In every case, two females had
been observed together with a male on several occasions during the
previous winter, but in Territory 14 in 1970 the winter females,
which were both colour-marked, were replaced by two new un-
marked females in March. The seven examples referred to four
territories. We know that on each territory where bigamy was
recorded twice at least one of the females was different on the second
occasion, but we were in no case certain about the males.
On plumage characteristics, two of these ‘triangles’ were known
to involve one two-year old female (probably nesting for the first
time) and one older female. Successful nesting by one of these
younger females took place in the same nest from which the older
I female had recently been shot. The nest was relincd so that the
single egg laid up to that time by the older female was buried. The
age of the females in the other cases was not known.
Not less than twelve of the 14 females involved in the seven
‘triangles’ laid eggs (see data for 1969-72 in table 2 on page 204),
but only once did both females in a territory fledge broods (a
total of four young from broods of one and three in Territory 30 in
1967). Others may have been prevented from doing so by human
disturbance at one of the nests. In all but one case, at least one
of the two females fledged young.
Breeding performance
The mean clutch size, calculated from all 72 completed clutches
irrespective of whether they hatched, was 2.96 (S.D. dz 0.72) (table
3c). This figure includes two repeat clutches and the clutches of
both females in Territory 28 in 1972. All five instances of a single
egg, and two of two eggs, were excluded as they were found in cir-
cumstances which suggested the clutch was incomplete when
deserted. In 1971 an unusually high proportion of clutches of three
and four eggs resulted in a mean clutch size (for 21 clutches) of
204
Buzzards in Spey side
Table 2. Occupancy, clutch size (C) and numbers of young hatched (H)
and fledged (F) in 38 territories of Buzzards Buteo buteo in Speyside, 1969-72
Territory not occupied -Presence/number of eggs or young unknown
fBigamy QClutch believed incomplete when deserted ^Repeat nest
'969
1970
1971
1972
Territory
C
H
F
c
H
F
c
H
F
c
H
F
I
-
-
0
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
2
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
4
4
3
3
—
—
0
3
3
3
4
4
4
2
O
O
4
—
—
O
—
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
5
-
0
2
2
2
4
4
4
-
3
3
ft
0
0
4
4
4
4
-
-
2*
7
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
2
-
-
2
8
3
3
3
4
3
0
4
4
4
2
1
1
9
—
—
O
—
—
2
-
—
2
4
4
4
10
O
O
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
I I
2
2
2
(0
0
0
-
-
O
4
4
4
2
2
2t
-
-
2t
12
3
2
0
3
3
3
3
3
2
-
0
0
-
3
3*
13
3
3
3
(0
O
O
-
-
O
3
3
2
14
-
O
O
0
O
0
3
2
2
4
4
3
-
-
2 ^
3
3
3t
15
-
3
3
2
2
2
4
4
2
2
2
2
l6
-
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
2
2
•7
-
2
2
3
2
2
3
3
3
2
2
2
18
3
3
3
2
2
2
3
0
0
3
2
2
19
3
3
3
-
O
O
3
2
2
2
2
0
3
2
1*
20
-
-
2
2
2
2
-
-
2
2
2
2
21
2
2
2
2
I
I
2
2
I
3
3
3
22
23
2
2
2
3
(2)
2
0
I
O
0
—
0
0
0
0
3
3
3
24
-
3
3
(2)
0
0
—
-
0
-
-
O
25
-
-
0
-
-
0
-
-
0
3
3
3
26
3
3
3
-
0
0
-
-
0
-
-
O
27
-
-
O
-
-
0
3
3
3
-
-
O
28
-
-
O
-
-
0
3
1
0
3
0
O
-
-
2t
2
0
°t
29
O
3
30
(0
O
O
-
O
O
3
0
O
-
-
O
3i
(0
O
0*
0
O
(0
0
0
32
-
-
O
-
-
O
-
-
0
-
-
O
33
-
-
O
-
-
O
-
-
0
-
-
O
34
35
—
—
0
—
—
0
—
—
0
—
—
O
0
36
37
0
oft
Buzzards in Speyside 205
ble 3. Summary of breeding data for Buzzards Buteo buteo in Speyside, 1969-72
1
> t data
•969
1970
1 97 1
1972
TOTALS
1
occupied territories
3»
32
38
34
*35
I
ories in which no breeding
seeding failed
'5
16
19
*5
85
1
ices of bigamy in which :
r : hen fledged young
O
2
2
0
4
ther hen fledged young
0
O
O
I
!
H
lut nests:
, cessful
I
I
I
I
4
s mccessful
O
I
0
O
I
l
ories from which young fledged
>7
20
22
21
80
1
young fledged
45
47
58
55
205
\
young fledged per successful nest
2.65
2-35
2.64
2.62
2.56
1. dard deviation
± 0.70
0.87
0.85
0.80
0.81
b
1 ta from territories in which young fledged and prior details known
•969
1970
1 97
1972
TOTALS
N
* er of territories
I I
«7
17
18
63
r
•eggs
32
46
55
54
187
r
young hatched (% eggs laid) 31
(97%)
42 (91%)
53 (96%)
50 (93%)
>76 (94%)
T
\ young fledged (% eggs laid) 31
(97%)
40 (87%)
48 (87%)
47 (87%)
166 (89%)
c. utch size in all nests where complete clutches counted
>969
•970
'97*
1972
TOTALS
N
« er of nests
1 I
18
21
22
72
N
"*vith 2 eggs (% of total)
3 (27%)
7 (39%)
* (5%)
9(4i%)
20 (28%)
N
"<vith 3 eggs (% of total)
6 (55%)
8(44%)
14(67%)
7 (32%)
35 (49%)
N
vith 4 eggs (% of total)
2 (18%)
3 (17%)
6 (28%)
6 (27%)
17 (24%)
.V
clutch size
2.91
2.78
324
2.86
2.96
. iard deviation
± 0.70
0-73
o-54
0.83
0.72
3.24 (S.D. ±0.54) (table 3c). Nestling losses among 176 chicks
hatched from nests with two, three and four eggs (tables 3b and 4)
were only 6% and there were no significant differences between the
numbers of young hatched and fledged from large and small
clutches. The mean number of young which flew from all 80 success-
ful nestings varied little from year to year (table 3a) and the overall
mean was 2.56 (S.D. di 0.81).
Experiment to increase clutch size
Mebs (1964), Holdsworth (1971) and D. Nethersole-Thompson
(in litt.) each recorded a clutch of five eggs. Bannerman (1956)
206
Buzzards in Spey side
Table 4. Hatching and fledging data for successful nests of Buzzards
Buteo baleo in Speyside, 1969-72, for clutches of two, three and four eggs
No. of EGGS HATCHED YOUNG FLEDGED
Year
clutches
1 2
3
4
1 2
3
4
1969
3
3
3
Clutch
1970
7
i 6
1 6
size 2
i97i
I
1
1
1972
6
• 5
• 5
TOTALS
34
32 (94%)
31 (91%)
1969
6
1
5
I
5
1970
8
3
5
2 1
5
Clutch
1971
I I
2
9
4
7
size 3
1972
6
2
4
3
3
TOTALS
93
85 (9>%)
80 (86%)
>969
2
_ _
_
2
_ —
_
2
Clutch
1970
2
-
-
2
-
-
2
size 4
1971
5
-
-
5
I
-
4
•972
6
— —
1
5
— —
3
3
TOTALS
60
59
(98%)
55
(92%)
GRAND
TOTALS
187
176
(94%)
166
(89%)
wrote that several sets of five eggs had been recorded in Somerset
and in the Pennine and Lakeland fells, and that a clutch of six had
once been recorded in Somerset. There are at least two other
records of clutches of six eggs, both prior to 1951, from Exmoor
(Dr I. Newton, verbally). The outcome of these nests is not docu-
mented, but Lewis (1934) recorded a brood of five young in Corn-
wall.
In 1971 we transferred two of the four eggs from a nest in Terri-
tory 6, where we correctly anticipated desertion due to tree felling,
to the nest in Territory 4 which contained three eggs. All five eggs
hatched and all the young fledged. No fault bars (Hamerstrom
1967) were seen on the feathers of the young, suggesting that none
was underfed. These two additional young are not included in
tables 2-4.
Breeding performance in relation to territory
The problem initially was whether the number of young fledged
each year was greater in some territories than in others (see appen-
dix). Unfortunately, there were insufficient data for detailed tests,
as so many nests failed (see above). However, with the limited data
available, we were able to test whether successful breeding was
related to certain features of the territory. The 22 territories chosen
207
Buzzards in Speyside
,»ble 5. Mean number of young fledged per successful nest, territory size and
-oportion of farmland in 22 territories of Buzzards Buteo buteo in Speyside in
which young fledged in two or more years, 1969-72
'erritory
Mean young
fledged
Area
(ha)
Percent
farmland
Territory
Mean young
fledged
Area
(ha)
Percent
farmland
I
3-7
316
50
12
2-5
435
25
2
3-5
293
30
>3
2-5
614
20
3
3-5
583
45
■4
2-5
472
50
4
3-0
479
55
*5
2-3
552
10
5
3-o
259
40
l6
2-3
440
'5
6
2.7
360
30
*7
2-3
428
'5
7
2-7
259
65
18
2-3
39'
30
8
2-7
767
>5
'9
2.0
650
5
9
2.7
337
20
20
2.0
233
O
10
2-7
288
30
21
i-7
295
10
1 1
2-5
469
35
22
*•5
687
5
for this analysis were those in which young Hedged in at least two
years. The mean number of young fledged per successful nest is
given in table 5; years in which no young were reared nor eggs laid
were discounted, though some of these failures were probably due
to natural causes. If deliberate and indirect disturbance by man had
not been the cause of many nest failures, we could also have used
and modified the composite index for the breeding history of a
territory described for the Tawny Owl Strix aluco by Southern and
Lowe (1968, table 4), which uses data from all years.
The annual maps of the 22 Buzzard territories were combined
for this analysis, as boundaries change little from year to year (Dare
1961) and our maps of many territories were incomplete for indivi-
dual years. From the composite map we measured the area of each
territory (table 5) and the proportion of each habitat within it; the
figures for farmland are given in table 5.
Our main conclusions were that, when birds bred successfully,
the mean number of young fledged was correlated with both the
proportion and extent of farmland in each territory.* Farmland
therefore appears to be the most important feature of a territory.
However, the mean number of young fledged was not associated
with territory size per se.
DISCUSSION
Tubbs’ (1972) analysis of 641 Buzzard nest record cards for 1948-69
(which included data from Speyside) showed that the biggest
*The Spearman Rank Correlation test was used in this analysis and the asso-
ciated values of t were also calculated (Siegel 1956). For the proportion of farm-
land, rs = 0.771 (P < 0.01), t = 5.414 (P < 0.001); for the extent, rs = 0.668
(P < 0.01), t = 4.014 (P < 0.001)
208
Buzzards in Speyside
British clutches were in the Scottish Highlands, where the overall
mean was 2.7 eggs per clutch. This was similar to our results for
1969, 1970 and 1972 (table 3c). In 1971 the mean in Speyside was
3.24. In Germany Mebs (1964) recorded large clutches in two years
when Common Voles Microtus arvalis were unusually abundant,
with means of 3.14 (seven clutches, S.D. di 0-69) and 3.17 (23
clutches, S.D. ±0.58). The overall mean clutch size in Speyside
was 2.96 which is greater than in any comparable study in Europe,
except for a mean of 3.07 for 42 clutches in Czechoslovakia quoted
by Glutz von Blotzheim et al. (1971, table 1 1). Large clutches from
the north and east of the European range are consistent with the
general phenomenon concerning clutch size described by Lack
(1947). Henny and Wight (1972) also showed an increase in clutch
size with latitude for the Red-tailed Hawk Buteo jamaicensis in North
America, but unlike European birds the longitudinal increase was
from east to west.
Although 1971 was exceptional, Buzzards in Speyside had high
productivity in general. Previous studies considered repeat clutches
to be rare, but we recorded them five times. Both Dare (1961) and
Mebs (1964) considered that broods of four young were too large for
a Buzzard to rear even in a good vole year. In Speyside, four young
fledged on eleven occasions and our experiment in 1971 showed
that a pair could rear five young. Bigamy in the Buzzard has
apparently not been reported by other workers, but might have been
overlooked. A possible advantage appeared to be that, if one female
failed to nest successfully, the other usually fledged young. The
failure of one or (once) both birds was often known to be due to
deliberate disturbance so that it was uncertain if both females
normally would fledge young and, if so, whether the total could be
greater than the four fledged from Territory 30 in 1967. In some
cases, the female which fledged young may not have laid until the
first one’s clutch had failed.
The nest record card data (Tubbs 1972) showed that the highest
recorded mean number of young fledged per successful nest (2.2)
was in the Scottish Highlands. In Speyside, the overall mean per
successful nest for 1969-72 was 2.56 (table 3a), greater than the
means given for any comparable study — for example, 2.2 in York-
shire (Holdsworth 1971), 1.9 in Germany (Mebs 1964) and 1.4 in
the New Forest (Tubbs 1967).
Many factors are known to influence clutch and fledged brood
size, but other studies of the Buzzard have emphasised food in parti-
cular (Schmaus 1938, Wendland 1952, Bannerman 1956, Dare
1961, Holdsworth 1971). In most of these studies, a general relation-
ship is shown between the mean annual breeding performance of
Buzzards and the abundance of their favoured prey. We did not
209
Buzzards in Speyside
measure food, but presumably it was more abundant or more
. efficiently exploited (or both) in Speyside, particularly in 1971,
than elsewhere. The importance of food to the breeding performance
in individual territories is implied by the relation between the mean
number of young reared in successful years and the amount of
farmland. While it must be emphasised that we could not make
an allowance for years in which breeding failed, the result is not
surprising; favoured prey species, such as Rabbits Oryclolagus cuniculus,
''Short-tailed Voles AI. agrestis and ground-nesting birds, are all
common on farmland and must be particularly vulnerable to hunting
birds owing to the open nature of the ground. Dare (1961) con-
sidered that Buzzard territories might possess a definite, if undeter-
mined, food value. Our results suggest that further research on
Buzzards could profitably give greater emphasis to this possibility.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the encouragement given to us by Drs D. Jenkins.
( C. J. Cadbury and I. Newton throughout this study and to thank them for their
comments and suggestions on drafts of this manuscript. We also benefited from
discussions with other colleagues on certain aspects of the data and particularly
rrom the advice and assistance with statistical problems given by D. Brown. We
are most grateful to H. Burton for assistance in the field, particularly in 1971.
! Finally, we are indebted to those landowners, factors and gamekeepers in the
study area without whose co-operation this study would have been impossible.
-SliMMAKV
Buzzards Buteo buteo were studied from 1969 to 1972 on 1 7,800 hectares of the Spey
\ Valley, east Inverness-shire. The mean of the 72 completed clutches found during
the four years was 2.96 (S.D. f 0.72), and the mean number of young fledged
from the 80 successful nests was 2.56 (S.D. 0.81). In 1971 the mean clutch size
•of 3.24 (21 clutches, S.D. J; 0.54) "’as unusually high. The main cause of nest
failures was accidental disturbance and deliberate destruction by man. Eleven
broods of four fledged young were recorded and in an experiment a pair of Buzzards
reared five young. Bigamy was recorded five times during the study and twice in
1967, but both females fledged young only once. The mean number of young
fledged per successful nest in 22 territories was significantly correlated with the
amount of farmland in each territory.
REFERENCES
Bannerman, D. A. 1956. The Birds of the British Isles. Edinburgh and London,
vol. 5: 144-160.
Dare, P.J. 1961. ‘Ecological observations on a breeding population of the Common
Buzzard, ( Buteo buteo (L.)), with particular reference to the diet and feeding
habits’. Unpublished Ph. D. thesis, University of Exeter.
Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N.. Bauer, K. M., and Bezzel, E. 1971. Handbuch der
Vogel Mitteleuropas. Frankfurt am Main, vol 4: 480-524.
Hamerstrom, F. 1967. ‘On the use of fault bars in ageing birds of prey’. Inland
Bird Banding Association News, 39: 35-41.
Harvie-Brown, J. A., and Buckley. T. E. 1895. A Vertebrate Fauna of the Moray
Basin. Edinburgh.
210
Buzzards in Speyside
Henny, C. J., and Wight, H. M. 1972. ‘Population ecology and environmental
pollution: Red-tailed and Cooper’s Hawks’. In Population Ecology of Migratory
Birds: A Symposium. U.S. Dept, of the Interior, Wildl. Res. Rep., 2: 229-250.
Holdsworth, M. 1971. ‘Breeding biology of Buzzards at Sedbergh during 1937-
67’. Brit. Birds, 64: 412-420.
Joensen, A. H. 1968. ‘En undersogelse af ynglebestanden af Musvage ( Buteo buteo )
pa Als 1962 og 1963’. Dansk Orn. Foren. Tidsskr., 62: 17-31.
Lack, D. 1947. ‘The significance of clutch-size’. Ibis, 89: 302-352.
Lewis, S. 1934. ‘Brood of five Common Buzzards’. Brit. Birds, 28: 52.
Mebs, T. 1964. ‘Zur Biologie und Populationsdynamik des Mausebussards ( Buteo
buteo) (Unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Abhangigkeit vom Massenwechsel
der Feldmaus Microtus arvalis)’. J. Orn., 105: 247-306.
Milstein, P. le S., Prestt, I., and Bell, A. A. 1970. ‘The breeding cycle of the
Grey Heron’. Ardea, 58: 1 71-257.
Moore, N. W. 1957 . ‘The past and present status of the Buzzard in the British
Isles’. Brit. Birds, 50: 1 73-197.
Schmaus, M. 1938. ‘Der Einfluss der Mausejahre auf das Brutgeschaft unserer
Raubvogel und Eulen’. Beitr. FortPflBiol. Vogel, 14: 181-184.
Siegel, S. 1956. Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. New York,
Toronto, London and Tokyo.
Southern, H. N., and Lowe, V. P. W. 1968. ‘The pattern of distribution of prey
and predation in Tawny Owl territories’. J. Anim. Ecol., 37: 75-97.
Tubbs, C. R. 1967. ‘Population study of Buzzards in the New Forest during 1962-
66’. Brit. Birds, 60: 381-395.
1972. ‘Analysis of nest record cards for the Buzzard’. Bird Study, 19: 96-104.
Wend land, V. 1952. ‘Populationsstudien an Raubvogeln. I. Zur Vermehrung des
Mausebussards ( Buteo b. buteo (h.)y.J. Orn., 93: 144-153.
N. Picozzi, Institute of Terrestrial Ecology , Banchory , Kincardineshire
AB3 3 ps
D. Weir, Creagdhu, Newtonmore, Inverness-shire
Notes
Little Ringed Plover with red legs In 1972 three pairs of Little
Ringed Plovers Charadrius dubius bred at Ladywalk Nature Reserve
in Warwickshire, on Central Electricity Generating Board land
which is completely covered by grey fly-ash. Both H. T. Lees and
I noticed that one of the females had pinkish-red legs. This bird was
observed over a period of ten weeks and there was clearly no possi-
bility of its legs being discoloured by mud. B. L. Kington
49 Stonebridge Park, Bristol BS5 6rp
Leg colour of Greenshank S. C. Madge (Brit. Birds, 66: 397) saw
a Greenshank Tringa nebularia with yellow legs at the Amble Dam,
Cornwall, on 1st October 1966. On 6th September 1973, at Cheddar
Reservoir, Somerset, I observed a wader some distance away with
noticeably yellow legs. I approached to within 30 metres and
watched the bird for some ten minutes in excellent light conditions.
It resembled a Greenshank in every other aspect, and when it flew
Notes
21 1
off and called my identification was confirmed. On plumage charac-
teristics it was probably an immature. Like the Cornish bird,
its legs showed no hint of green but appeared bright pale yellow.
The leg colour of many wader species, especially that of young
birds, can vary a fair amount, occasionally to a marked degree as
in this instance. Brian Rabbitts
rj Hippisley Drive, Axbridge, Somerset BS26 2DE
In the North-Western Bird Reports for 1960-62 and 1963-66 there
are several references to Greenshanks with yellow legs. On page 24
in the first of these reports, details were given in square brackets
of a wader seen by J. P. Wilkinson on the Dee marshes, Cheshire, on
23rd July 1961, which had been suggested as a possible Greater
Yellowlegs T. melanoleuca. The legs were described as ‘conspic.
yellow, tending to orange-yellow’. It continued: ‘Observers on 3
subsequent occasions saw a bird with yellowish legs, one flushed by
GW, etc., rising with a normal Greenshank and calling similar to
Greenshank voice, had browner wings and more restricted white
rump. Two seen by THE on Aug. 21 had duller yellow legs than
JPW’s bird. JPW found his bird conformed with illust. in Pearson’s
“Birds of America” [1917] and descriptive text for melanoleuca ; it is
assumed that the birds subsequently seen were aberrant nebularia .’
(The observers involved were T. H. Ellis and G. Williams.) On
page 25, under Greenshank, was stated: ‘During the scrutiny of Dee
marshes for melanoleuca, aberrations of nebularia were observed by
'GW, THE and others, in which 2 or 3 specimens, possibly imm.,
had dull yellow legs, but the normal extension of white from rump
up the back, call, and other features. This is not mentioned in
Nethersole-Thompson’s handbook on the Greenshank [1951, The
Greenshank], nor Witherby’s and other handbooks which give olive-
green for the young bird’s legs.’
Under Greenshank in the 1963-66 report (page 23) appeared the
statement: ‘Yellow legs of imm. freq. seen.’ Eric Hardy
47 Woodsorrel Road, Liverpool L15 6ub
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper with flesh-coloured legs and feet
From 1st to 26th November 1969 a Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris
acuminata was present in Zuidelijk Flevoland, Netherlands. This was
the first Dutch record ( Limosa , 43: 132- 135). The bird had flesh-
coloured legs and feet, instead of olive-green to yellowish as stated
in the literature. It was injured in the right foot and wing. Whether
the poor condition was responsible for the aberrant colour of the
legs and feet is unknown. G. J. Oreel
Instituut voor Taxonomische Zoologie ( Zoologisch Museum), Plantage
Middenlaan 53, Amsterdam- 1 00 4, Netherlands
212
Notes
Behaviour of Long-eared Owls in presence of dog The obser-
vations on which this note is based were made in a forest in Ost
Friesland, West Germany, between November 1969 and March
1972, mainly in the winters of 1970-71 and 1971-72, on a total of 21
separate nights. The forest is mixed but predominantly coniferous;
it contains blocks of mature trees, plantations of different ages and
cleared areas. The surface is level and mostly sand. Long-eared
Owls Asio otus bred regularly in small numbers and formed a roost in
winter totalling approximately 50 birds. This roost was in a rec-
tangular plantation of pines measuring 300 metres x 200 metres;
two sides were bounded by mature conifers, two by mature mixed
trees. The area was divided by straight rides at intervals of 100
metres and 300 metres. The pines in the plantation were about
six metres high.
The dog in question was a dachshund bitch, smooth-haired, black
and tan, weighing 6b kg. The interest of the owls in the dog began
the first time a Long-eared Owl was seen in the forest. It was dusk
when the dog and I were walking steadily along a ride subsequently
found to divide the roost. The owl flew low over the dog from behind
and then perched half-way up a pine about 30 metres along the
ride; it remained still while no movement of dog or man took place,
later allowing an approach to ten metres; at this range it flew
along the ride again to about 30 metres’ range and again permitted
approach to within ten metres, when a repeat performance occurred.
During the next three night visits to the area it became obvious
that the owls were attracted by the dog. Single birds and groups
of up to four flew low over it and settled into a regular pattern of
repeated low passes for up to ten minutes’ duration. On one
occasion an owl momentarily hovered immediately over the dog.
On subsequent visits I was partially concealed in a ditch at a
crossing of two rides, one dividing the plantation from mature trees,
the other dividing both plantation and roost. The main concentra-
tion of the roost was 120 metres from me. The dog was allowed to
move about within the rides on the crossing. I took up this position a
few minutes before sunset in anticipation of the owls, emerging from
the roost soon after sunset.
The majority of the owls seen flying from the roost were attracted
by the dog and either adopted a regular flight pattern over the
dog or perched in nearby trees watching the dog and myself. Fre-
quently, pattern flying was followed by perching and vice versa.
The patterns were ‘racetrack’ or ‘dumbbell’ in plan, about 20 metres
long, and included a low pass over the dog along the direction of one
of the rides. The owls descended to heights as low as half a metre
above the dog’s back, sometimes descending steeply, sometimes
making a gentle descent. Rarely, descent was made at the beginning
Moles
213
of the approach path and a level overflight made. Turns at the end
of the patterns were made either just above or between the planta-
tion tree tops. Occasionally the legs were dropped and claws
extended during descent. Perching was in the top branches of the
plantation trees or the lower branches of the mature trees, five to 20
metres from the dog. Pattern flying and perching usually continued
for as long as the dog and I remained in the area of the plantation,
the numbers of owls present decreasing after ten to 15 minutes.
Observation was normally stopped by the onset of total darkness,
but in very cold weather, when it was necessary to move to avoid
freezing the dog, the owls continued their routine of low passes and
watching from trees, moving along the ride with the dog and con-
tinuing to fly very near to it. The total numbers of owls seen were
difficult to assess because of their agility and the poor light condi-
tions, but the maximum number seen performing simultaneously
was 16, the average in 19 visits being six. ‘Ears’ were occasionally
lifted slightly, never fully, by perched birds. Sounds were heard only
three times: once a succession of soft, monosyllabic ‘tup’, once
a disyllabic ‘mew-ew’ and once a squeaking sound, quite different
from the usual juvenile creaking.
Two visits were made without the dog to confirm that the dog and
not its owner was the attraction. On the first, six owls were seen;
five ignored me while one perched and watched momentarily after I
had begun to move from the ditch. On the second occasion I saw ten
• owls; eight ignored me, one perched to watch momentarily and one
moved from perch to perch ahead of me as I walked away. There
were no low passes and a general lack of interest which contrasted
markedly with the owls’ behaviour when the dog was present.
When I attempted to photograph their behaviour, the owls be-
came reluctant to come close but perched at greater distances than
usual or flew past outside the range of the flash unit. It appeared to
be the noise of the electronic flash which repelled them. The attempt
’ was unsuccessful.
This method of observation can be recommended to anyone who
wishes to see Long-eared Owls at close range: their behaviour was
like an air display. The dog ignored the owls and I must conclude
this note with a tribute to her steadiness and patience, without
which qualities some interesting and entertaining birdwatching
'Would not have been possible. T. R. Holland
3 Dereham Court, Leamington Spa, Warwickshire
Rooks feeding on suspended fat I have observed string-pulling
behaviour by the Rook Corvus frugilegus similar to that reported
by M. L. Richards (Brit. Birds, 66: 365-366), and also three other
methods used by this species to tackle hanging food.
214
Notes
On 1 8th March 1973 three Rooks visited my garden at East Grin-
stead, Sussex, to feed on a large piece of bacon fat hanging from a
tree close to the house. The fat was about 1.5 metres above the
ground, and was tied to a length of thick binder twine (not the plastic
type) about 1.2 metres long. One Rook attempted to feed while the
other two stood on the ground.
During a period of about 30 minutes I observed four feeding
methods in the following sequence:
( 1 ) A Rook flew up from the ground and grasped the fat with its
bill. It remained hanging with its wings closed for about a minute,
presumably hoping to pull off a morsel. It seemed unsuccessful
and returned to the ground.
(2) A short while after I noticed a Rook clinging to the fat
with its feet. It was hanging, tit-like, upside-down, pecking
vigorously at the food.
(3) Subsequently I saw a Rook hanging sideways on the string
which it gripped with both feet while pecking at the fat.
(4) The final method involved standing on the branch and pul-
ling the string up with its bill. It then used its foot to clamp the
string against the branch, while reaching down to pull up more
string with its bill, and so on. It made five pulls before it could
reach the fat which it then pulled up on to the branch to eat.
Unfortunately I did not note if the same Rook was involved in
each case. D. Washington
Fox Acre, Lewes Road, East Grinstead, Sussex
Further interesting observations of Rooks pulling up hanging
bones were recorded by Dr Monica F. White in the Surrey Bird
Report for 1971, pages 77-78. Eds
Food-burying and recovery by Rook On 23rd October 1973 I
had a telephone call from R. Atkinson, the manager of a sand
quarry at Lazonby, near Penrith, Cumberland. He related to me
how he had thrown a piece of bread to a Rook Corvus frugilegus at
approximately 1 1 .45 hours that day, and how the Rook had taken
the bread to a place in the quarry and buried it in the sand. He went
to the place and uncovered the bread which had been completely
covered. He then re-buried the bread and left it. At 15.30 hours he
saw the Rook, which he was convinced was the same bird, go and
uncover the bread and swallow it.
This Rook is known to him by its tameness, voice and mannerisms,
coming close to be fed whenever people are throwing food out. He
had suspected it of burying food before, but this was the first
proof he had had of recovery of food it had buried.
I have checked the many records in this journal of food-hiding by
Notes
215
Rooks, but none specifies the exact time of recovery (see especially
Brit. Birds , 51: 500-502; 60: 137-138; 61: 228-229; 62 : 334-336;
63 : 1 74-177). The most relevant note comes from more than 20 years
ago (Brit. Birds , 45: 68), in which extensive food-hoarding was
reported by Mrs F. M. Neill Watson from Greystones, Co. Wicklow.
She saw ‘a Rook bury pieces of food, especially old crusts of bread,
in the ground and subsequently dig them up, either for itself or
for its young’. The recovery of buried food by Rooks may be more
common than the paucity of records suggests.
Incidentally, E. Garbutt has told me that he has noticed Rooks
which he had in captivity, while recuperating from injuries, burying
food (crusts, and so on) in cracks in paving stones and rockeries.
R. W. Robson
New Hall , Appleby , Westmorland cai6 6ln
A. R. Fairhurst, who hand-reared a Rook in Lancashire in 1969,
writes as follows: ‘This bird has many methods of food-hiding: when
near long grass it simply thrusts the food down into the ‘mat’; on
the lawn it disgorges the food first, digs a hole with its beak, places
the food in the hole, puts the soil back and often covers it with
short grass-stems picked from nearby; on bare earth the last opera-
tion is omitted. Food is also hidden under loose bark of trees. What is
more, my bird returns to hiding spots days after the initial burying,
retrieves the food and consumes it.’ He suspects that Rooks hide food
only when replete or when food supply exceeds appetite. Dr P. R.
Richards has also written, in reply to our enquiries on this subject,
as follows: ‘I keep Rooks in captivity, and it is their usual practice
to hide any food in excess of their immediate consumption. Often
they will hide living insects without killing them, such as maggots
and caterpillars, which is rather pointless as they quickly disperse.
The usual method of hiding is by digging a small hole with the
beak, placing the food in the bottom, and then covering the hole
over with earth, a small stone, grass, or any other covering to hand.
An existing hole or crevice is frequently used if one is available.
The birds often do seem satisfied with their first effort in hiding
their food and will sometimes dig it up again and hide it elsewhere.
Exactly similar behaviour occurs with my Ravens C. corax. Magpies
Pica pica, Carrion Crows C. corone and Jays Garrulus glandarius. Jack-
daws C. monedula prefer to hide their food in their nestbox, and I have
not seen them dig a hole with their bill to hide food.’ Eds
‘News and comment* has had to be held over to the next issue.
Reviews
Breeding Birds of Britain and Ireland. By John Parslow. T.
and A. D. Poyser, Berkhamsted, 1973. 272 pages; 12 text-
figures; 225 maps; 21 line-drawings. £3.60.
It is now almost ten years since the editors of this journal con-
vinced the Nature Conservancy of the need for an up-to-date study
of changes in the status of British and Irish breeding birds. As a
result, funds were provided enabling John Parslow to be based at
the Edward Grey Institute for more than two years, during which
time, supervised by the late Dr David Lack, he carried out what
must be one of the most comprehensive literature surveys ever
undertaken and additionally corresponded widely with county
recorders.
The results of the study started to appear in this journal in
January 1967 and the editors could be excused their hint of self-
congratulation when they wrote ‘. . . we believe that his paper
reaches a standard rarely equalled elsewhere in studies of this
kind’, for this was no more than the truth. Succeeding issues re-
vealed that it was indeed an admirable piece of research: lucid,
refreshingly unpretentious (‘Intuition played a large part in many
final decisions’), yet meticulous in judgement.
Each breeding species was placed in one of six orders of magnitude,
based on the possible number of pairs in Britain and Ireland, as
follows :
very scarce 1-100 fairly numerous 10,000-100,000
scarce 100-1,000 numerous 100,000-1,000,000
not scarce 1,000-10,000 abundant over 1,000,000
and changes in status and range were reviewed with great thorough-
ness. The completed work was extraordinarily stimulating, and if
one had any regret at all it was that distribution was not spelled out
in greater detail.
Now even that small reservation has been put right, for the eight
papers have been brought together in book form, updated with a
postscript chapter and rounded off with distribution maps for 225
species. These maps, first compiled for the Reader's Digest and
here appearing in their latest form, must represent a high point
in distributional surveys derived from random observations made
over a long period of years. It will be of great interest to see how they
compare with the maps now being prepared by the British Trust for
Ornithology after five years’ intensive fieldwork by 8,000 observers
participating in the Atlas in Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland.
Some discrepancies are inevitable, one supposes, but they will in
some ways enhance rather than detract from the importance of this
216
i Reviews 2 1 7
present work: comparisons will, for example, reveal which species
tend to be under-recorded by conventional means.
The author, the publishers, and indeed the editors of this journal
whose brainchild it was, are to be congratulated on adding a
valuable book to the library shelf. It deserves to be well thumbed.
Robert Spencer
Der Zug Europaischer Singvogel: Ein Atlas der Wiederfunde
iBeringter Vogel. Part 1. By Gerhardt Zink. Vogelwarte
-Radolfzell, 7761 Schloss Moggingen, iiber Radolfzell, West
(Germany, 1973. 125 pages, including 85 full-page maps.
1DM 48.
This useful new atlas of passerine ringing recoveries is in many
respects a successor to the Atlas des Vogelzugs nach den Beringungs-
ergebnissen, by E. Schiiz and H. Weigold (1931). It is to be issued in
three parts; the first, now available, contains 85 maps of recoveries
plus 40 pages of text, covering 30 species in the families Turdidae
and Sylviidae. It is 34 X 27 cm in size, in loose-leaf format, with
separate pagination for each species. Thus maps can be laid side
by side for comparisons, though there is the disadvantage that
individual sheets may become misplaced or dog-eared with frequent
use; and if sets are bound later, the lack of a continuous pagination
may prove irritating. Dr Zink’s Atlas will treat fewer species than
did the 1931 Schiiz and Weigold work, for some, since ringed in
large numbers, have now yielded too many recoveries for this kind
of mapping. In his introduction, the author names the passerines he
will not be treating, and gives references to published analyses for
them.
For the 30 species treated in part 1 of Der Zug Europaischer
Singvogel , Dr Zink maps all European and African recoveries of over
100 km known to him, and his literature search has evidently been
thorough. The amount of space allotted to each species varies; thus
the Moustached Warbler, having few records, occupies but a single
leaf, while the Blackcap has two pages of text and nine of maps, the
latter segregating data by region as well as by season. Even those
unfamiliar with the German language should be able to cope with
the generally brief text, which is standardised under eight
headings: Herbstzug (autumn migration); Uberwinterung (winter
range) ; Friihjahrszug (spring migration) ; Erlauterungen (com-
ments) ; Material (numbers of recoveries used and overall recovery
rates) ; Quellen (sources of the recoveries used) ; Auswertungen
(references to published analyses) ; and Sonstige Literatur (other
literature). This atlas is essentially a visual presentation of recoveries,
not an analysis in the usual sense, providing graphic indications of
what ringing has revealed about migration routes and winter-
2l8
Reviews
quarters, and confirming that west European populations of most
species migrate in autumn south to south-west via Iberia. Yet there
are some interesting exceptions. Though the Nightingale and Reed
Warbler migrate south-west, their close relatives the Thrush
Nightingale and Marsh Warbler migrate south-east; similarly, the
Melodious Warbler and Whitethroat move south-west, while the
Icterine Warbler and Lesser Whitethroat head south-east. The maps
well illustrate the spectacular migratory divide in the Blackcap,
British and west European breeders migrating south-west, those of
Fenno-Scandia and central and eastern Europe heading south-east.
It is particularly useful to have brought together the scattered
recoveries in the African presumed winter-quarters of the various
trans-Saharan migrants. Anywhere in it one may find one’s atten-
tion drawn to some aspect not previously appreciated properly:
perhaps the paucity of Iberian Sedge Warbler recoveries (do they
overfly Iberia as well as the Mediterranean and Sahara?), or the
absence of autumn Greenland Wheatear recoveries north of
Brittany (direct transoceanic flight from Greenland to south-west
Europe in autumn is indicated). Most British ringers and migration
enthusiasts will have a good idea of the routes used by migrant
British birds, but they may not appreciate the similarities and differ-
ences apparent in other European populations; it is in putting the
ringing results of individual countries into a continental perspective
that is the strength of this Atlas. Robert Hudson
{ M SEP 1^74
Letters
Redpolls feeding from floating vegetation Although I have
never seen Siskins Carduelis spinus feeding from floating vegetation
{Brit. Birds, 66: 231), I frequently see Redpolls Acanthis flammea
feeding in a somewhat similar manner. For a short period during
each autumn the surface of the water in the dyke which flows under
the windows of my home near Norwich becomes covered with the
seeds of silver birch Betula and possibly also alder Alnus glutinosa, at
a time which coincides with the arrival of large flocks of Redpolls
from the north and east. Singly or in small parties the birds flutter
down to the surface of the water, apparently under the impression
that they can alight on it. Unless there is some flotsam which will
bear their weight, they are compelled to feed by fluttering (one
might almost say hovering) over the water, and this they success-
fully do. M. D. England
Mashobra, Neatishead, Norwich nor 37Z
County boundary changes I read with interest the paragraph in
‘News and comment’ on the new county boundaries {Brit. Birds,
Letters
219
67: 33). These present no difficulties to the many naturalists who
have recorded plants and animals using the Watsonian Vice-County
boundaries, which were originally defined in 1852. These boun-
daries are unchanging, with the result that records made over 100
years ago are strictly comparable with today’s. For recording, the
Vice-Counties are the obvious answer if National Grid squares are
not to be used. The definition of the territories to be covered by the
I warious bird reports remains a matter to be arranged by mutual
consent between the major natural history societies and, where
appropriate, the nature conservation trusts.
In 1969 the Ray Society published maps showing the Vice-
(County boundaries overprinted in red on the two sheets of the
(Ordnance Survey 10 miles to 1 inch map of Great Britain, accom-
panied by a small booklet by J. E. Dandy which explains certain
details of the boundaries where they are not obvious from the maps.
These maps are obtainable from the Assistant Secretary, The Ray
1 'Society, c/o British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road,
| ILondon SW7 5BD. E. Milne-Redhead
Parkers, 43 Bear Street, Nayland, Colchester, Essex co6 4HX
[Request for information
(Colour-ringed and dye-marked waders from Greenland From 22nd June
to about 17th August 1974 a Joint Biological Expedition, formed by the Wader
' SStudy Group and a party of biologists from Dundee University, will be visiting
:north-east Greenland. The Wader Study Group programme will include colour-
j rringing and dye-marking the waders caught. In 1972 two out of five Ringed
j i Plovers Charadrius hiaticula marked in this way during a previous expedition to
(Greenland were recorded in Britain. It is expected that many more birds will be
| nmarked this year — mainly Ringed Plovers, Dunlins Calidris alpina and Sanderlings
| ( C. alba, and perhaps also Turnstones Arenaria interpres and Knots C. canutus —
and we appeal to all birdwatchers to look out for them, both on the coast and at
inland waters. Details of rings and dye marks seen should be sent as promptly as
(possible to A. J. Prater, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring,
I Hertfordshire HP23 5NR.
{February reports D. A. Christie
IThese are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
' Early in the month huge seabird movements were recorded off the Cornish coast.
1 At St Ives on 2nd three hours’ watching produced 50 Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis,
1,750 Gannets Sul a bassana, seven Great Skuas Stercorarius skua and an immature
Arctic 5. parasiticus, 2,000 Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla and 12,000 auks. At
Porthgwarra a Manx Shearwater Puffinus puffinus flew west with 1 20 Gannets,
120 Shags Phalacrocorax aristotelis and 1,500 Kittiwakes on 9th, and in a south-
' "west force 9 storm on 10th movement over two hours included three Manx Shear-
vwaters, 14 Fulmars, 1,203 Gannets, three Great and three Arctic Skuas,
1 ,605 Kittiwakes, a Little Gull Larus minutus, a Little Auk Plautus alle and 5 1 o
indeterminate auks, with 500 Gannets, 1,000 Kittiwakes and 500 auks remain-
220
February reports
ing offshore. An unidentified shearwater was at Foreness Point (Kent) on 15th
and a Gannet was found dead inland at Melverley (Shropshire) following gales at
the end of the month. At Chew Valley Lake (Somerset) a Shag was seen on 22nd.
Single Great Skuas were also seen at Weymouth (Dorset) on 2nd, at Colne Point
(Essex) on gth, at Dungeness (Kent) on 13th, and found dead in Sand Bay (Somer-
set) on 19th ; and single Arctic Skuas were at Broadness (Kent) on 10th and off the
Mersey Bar (Lancashire) from 17th to 21st, while at Seaton Sluice (Northumber-
land) three were recorded with one unidentified skua during 2nd*3rd, and another
Arctic or a Pomarine S. pomarinus went north at Rattray Head (Aberdeen-
shire) on 3rd.
An American Wigeon Anas americana which appeared at Covenham Reservoir
(Lincolnshire) on 11th stayed until 24th. Smew Mergus albellus, though reported
from 18 localities, were present only in very small numbers. Bean Geese Anser
fabalis returned to a formerly regular site in Northumberland, Grindon Lough,
eight on 12th increasing to a maximum of 18 on 24th. A Goshawk Accipiter
gentilis was seen near Greenhead (Co. Durham) on 24th, a day after a Gyrfalcon
Falco rusticolus had appeared in the Glen Tig area of Ayrshire.
Following the wintering of a Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius in January
(Brit. Birds, 67 : 1 76), another was reported in west Kent on 23rd February. Perhaps
more surprising was the arrival of a Kentish Plover C. alexandrinus at Hoylake
(Cheshire) on 24th, which was still present in the wader roost in March. There
were three single Grey Phalaropes Phalaropus fulicarius, at Dawlish Warren
(Devon) on 10th, west at St Ives on 17th, and at Formby (Lancashire) on 24th.
An Arctic Tern Sterna paradisaea was seen well at Hayle (Cornwall) in the middle
of the month, a quite unprecedented time for this species. Sandwich Terns S.
sandvicensis (some again preceding the previous earliest date of 13th February)
were seen at St Ives on 3rd (three) and in Southampton Water from 18th, and
recovered at North Berwick (East Lothian) on 12th and at Happisburgh (Norfolk)
on 13th, both having been ringed as pulli on the Fame Islands (Northumberland).
Equally unexpected was a Sabine’s Gull Larus sabini at Flamborough (Yorkshire)
on 10th. A Little Auk picked up at Brean Down Farm (Somerset) on 9th was later
released at the Axe estuary nearby.
A Hoopoe Upupa epops was at Stratford upon Avon (Warwickshire) on the very
unusual date of 16th. At Reydon marshes, near Southwold (Suffolk), as many as
62 Hooded Crows Corvus corone cornix were counted moving north-by-west on
22nd, a surprisingly large concentration in view of the low numbers recorded in
recent winters in south-east England. A small passage of Ravens C. corax was noted
at Hengistbury Head (Hampshire), with one on 20th and four on 24th all going
east. A Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus, another early arrival (or wintering bird),
was watched at Stockbury (Kent) on 24th. Waxwings Bombycilla garrulus were
reported from only five places: one was in Aberdeen on 4th and 5th, and one at
Calverton (Nottinghamshire) on 7th; one at Newthorpe (also Nottinghamshire),
found with a broken wing on 24th, died on 1 1 th March ; two were in Edgbaston
Park (Warwickshire) during February and March; while in the Tyneside area one
to six were noted at four sites between 15th and 25th February.
STOP PRESS
Among recent sightings are Great White Egrets in Yorkshire at Scaling Dam
Reservoir from 28th May to 6th June and at Spurn on 1st June; a Little Egret and
a White Stork at North Slob (Co. Wexford) on 6th June; Red-footed Falcons in
Suffolk during ist-2nd and on 7th June, and in Kent during ist-2nd and from
7th to at least 10th; two Pratincoles in Lancashire and one in Hampshire during
the last week of May; two Black-eared Wheatears near Dungeness on 21st May,
one of which stayed until 29th; and a Scarlet Rosefinch trapped on Bardsey
(Caernarvonshire) on 31st May.
m&shi
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n period of seven years, and the following pointers may be useful,
'he 8 X 30 model (priced at £15 40), which is approved by the
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Volume 67 Number 5 May 1974
177 A further review of the problem of ‘escapes' M. D. England
197 More examples of the best recent work by British bird-
photographers Text by Eric Hosking Plates 29-36
199 Breeding biology of the Buzzard in Speyside
N. Picozzi and Hon. D. Weir
Notes
210 Little Ringed Plover with red legs B. L. Kington
210 Leg colour of Greenshank Brian Rabbitts, and Eric Hardy
211 Sharp-tailed Sandpiper with flesh-coloured legs and feet
G. J. Or eel
212 Behaviour of Long-eared Owls in presence of dog
Wing Commander T. R. Holland
213 Rooks feeding on suspended fat D. Washington
214 Food-burying and recovery by Rook R. W. Robson
Reviews
216 Breeding Birds of Britain and Ireland by John Parslow
Robert Spencer
217 Der Zug Europaischer Singvogel : Ein Atlas der Wiederfunde
Beringter Vogel (part 1) by Gerhardt Zink Robert Hudson
Letters
218 Redpolls feeding from floating vegetation M. D. England
218 County boundary changes E. Milne-Redhead
Request for information
219 Colour-ringed and dye-marked waders from Greenland
G. H. Green
219 February reports D. A. Christie
Printed by Henry Burt 4 Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA
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olume 67 Number 6 June 1974
'X
1 1 SIP 19/4
(Predation by birds on social wasps
ff. R. Birkhead
INTRODUCTION
lit is well known that bee-eaters (Meropidae) and the Honey
I Iduzzard* prey extensively on stinging Hymenoptera. However, the
extent to which other birds feed on stinging insects is poorly known.
This paper examines published records of birds feeding on the social
1 wasps of the genus Vespula and on the Hornet Vespa crabro (Hymenop-
uiera, Vespidae) and draws attention to the various reactions of the
airds to their stinging mechanism and toxicity. It is confined mainly
j ! :o birds of Europe and the USSR feeding on European species of
wasps.
The following social wasps occur in Britain and Ireland and over
much of Europe: Common Wasp Vespula vulgaris, German Wasp V.
gg ermanica , Red Wasp V. rufa, Norwegian Wasp V. norvegica, Tree
Wasp V. sylvestris and Cuckoo Wasp V. austriaca.
In the present paper much of the information collected is of
incidental observations, recorded as short notes. Although a large
amount of work on the relationships between birds and distasteful
insects has been carried out, the social wasps have received little
attention. Hesse (1916) recorded a list of birds predatory on social
wasps, and Charlemagne (1954) commented on the predation
by birds on stinging Hymenoptera, but there have since been a
number of further records. In North America, McAtee (1932)
collected 822 records of Vespoidea being eaten by a total of 140
* Scientific names of birds feeding on wasps are given in the appendix on
page 229.
22 I
222
Predation by birds on social wasps
(unnamed) species of birds, and used this, together with other infor-
mation, in an attempt to demonstrate that protective adaptations in
animals are not effective. These suggestions were subsequently
criticised by a number of workers (Anon 1934), and Cott (1940)
came to the opposite conclusion.
WARNING COLORATION
All social wasps have a striking black and yellow pattern which is
generally regarded as an aposematic (warning) coloration, and all
females (queens and workers) possess powerful stings. I have
suggested (Birkhead 1973a) that the similarity of the colour mark-
ings among social wasps prevents potential predators from distin-
guishing the species, so that the group probably forms a series of
Mullerian mimics. If this is so, a predator may learn to avoid all
the species as a result of one or a few encounters with individuals of
any species. In certain groups of insects, such as danaid butter-
flies (Danaidae), the whole creature may be distasteful, but other
insects, such as the social wasps and bees (Apoidea), may be quite
palatable except for the stinging mechanism. Therefore, if a parti-
cular predator can overcome the sting either by removing or
destroying it, or by being sufficiently protected not to be stung, or
through possessing some degree of immunity to venom, the apose-
matic coloration would cease to operate protectively for the insect
in question.
PALATABILITY AND WASPS AS AVIAN PREY
There is good evidence that at least some birds find social wasps
palatable; in fact, a few habitually feed on stinging Hymenoptera
and have developed methods of avoiding the insects’ stings.
1. Bee-eaters. All species take stinging Hymenoptera, though as
their name suggests these are usually bees Apis spp. The European
Bee-eater also takes social wasps (Witherby et al. 1938-41, Matousek
1951, Hachler 1958, Maran 1958, Fintha 1968, Herrera and
Ramirez 1974). Charlemagne (1954) recorded that during August
near Kiev, USSR, the stomachs of Bee-eaters contained Hornets
and wasps exclusively. Bee-eaters have a highly stereotyped and
efficient method of dealing with venomous insects, which Fry
(1969) has described in detail. Stinging insects are de-venomed
by a sequence of beating and rubbing the prey rapidly against
the perch. This treatment discharges the venom on to the perch and
apparently renders the insect harmless and edible. Bee-eaters are
able to recognise drone bees and non-stinging insects, which they
do not subject to such severe treatment as venomous forms (Fry
1969, 1972).
223
Predation by birds on social wasps
2. Shrikes (Laniidae). Three species have been recorded feeding
on social wasps: Great Grey (Witherby et al. 1938-41, Bohac 1964,
Cade 1967), Lesser Grey (Hesse 1916, Charlemagne 1954) and Red-
backed (Owen 1929, Necas 1942, Charlemagne 1954). The food
and hunting techniques of the Great Grey Shrike in North America
have been examined by Cade (1967). He found that this species took
large numbers of social wasps and that these and other insects
were always caught in the beak (while bird or mammal prey was
sometimes taken in the feet). Cade also suggested that after locating
a wasps’ nest this species may systematically take all the adult
(flying) members.
Gwinner (1961) made a detailed study of sting removal from
Hymenoptera by Red-backed Shrikes. He found that they destroyed
the stinging apparatus by squeezing the tip of the abdomen and
rubbing it against the perch. Gwinner stated that this pattern of
behaviour was apparently elicited by the specific elasticity of the
insect’s thorax, though the size and movements of the prey animal
were also important. In addition, the moving sting was found to
intensify the bird’s reaction. I can find no record of Great Grey
or Lesser Grey Shrikes preparing hymenopterid prey in this manner,
though it seems highly probable that they do so.
3. Honey Buzzard. Despite its name, the main foods of the Honey-
Buzzard are the immature and mature stages of social wasps
(Thorburn 1925, Witherby et al. 1938-41, N. N. Somov in Charle-
magne 1954). Hagen and Bakke (1958) found that in southern
Norway the Common Wasp was the main prey species, and most
other authors refer to Honey Buzzards taking the nests of ground-
nesting social wasps, digging them out with their feet, but Yoous
(i960) also mentioned nests of arboreal wasps — Norwegian and
Tree Wasps — being raided. According to J. G. Millais (in Thorburn
1925), Honey Buzzards follow wasps to their nests and then excavate
and consume the contents. This author also recorded that birds
appeared indifferent to the attacks of the wasps, but Trap-Lind
(1962) observed a Honey Buzzard attacking a wasps’ nest and, on
examining the remains of the nest later, he found many' decapitated
wasps. Wood (no date) suggested that Honey Buzzards are vulner-
able only at the base of the beak and around the eyes but, as Willis
(1972) pointed out and my own examination of museum specimens
confirms, the feathers around the head are small, stiff and close
fitting, presumably forming an efficient barrier against the stings.
In addition to those commonly known to take adult wasps, many
other species of birds have been recorded eating these insects
(see appendix). Some of these are of particular interest.
Fincher (1951) described how a first-year Great Tit took a wasp
224
Predation by birds on social wasps
(probably either Common or Norwegian), held it with its foot and
pecked at it. The first beakful was not eaten, but he could not
determine whether this was the sting; succeeding beakfuls were
eaten. Tutman (1949) recorded Great Tits removing the stings of
dead Honeybees A. mellifera. C. Elmhirst (in Knubley 1889),
Hesse (1916), Charlemagne (1954) and S. M. Pospelov (in Dementiev
and Gladkov 1 966-68) recorded Great Tits eating wasps, and there
are also references to bees found in the stomachs of Great Tits
(Newman 1863, Norgate 1881, Pospelov loc. cit.), indicating that
these birds are capable of coping with venomous Hymenoptera.
These observations contrast with those made by three independent
observers of Blue Tits Parus caeruleus, which avoided social wasps.
Rankin (1950) and Powne (1951) both noted that, when Blue Tits
approached a bone upon which wasps were already feeding, they
appeared to be wary and did not alight on the bone. Rogers (1951)
also observed wasps driving Blue Tits off ripening fruit. Although
these observations differ from those on Great Tits, the latter
are not adequate to suggest that this would not be a normal response
from them also, in similar situations.
Some observations of birds feeding on Honeybees are enlighten-
ing. Tutman (1949) recorded Great Tits entering beehives on very
cold days to feed on dead bees, when the live occupants were in a
torpid condition. He also noted that at other times Great Tits were
apparently ‘afraid’ of live bees. Manley (1948) recorded Great Tits,
Blue Tits and sparrows (House Sparrows Passer domesticus ?) taking
bees in the vicinity of hives. These observations raise the possibility
that birds may take advantage of torpid insects. Under certain
weather conditions, particularly on damp, misty days, I have ob-
served torpid social wasps and bumblebees on flower heads. Stinging
insects in a torpid condition would be relatively easy prey for birds.
There are several records of crows (Corvidae) eating social wasps.
There are references to Rooks (Anon 1916, Marie 1923, Holyoak
1972) and Magpies (Csiki 1919, Goodwin 1952, Bahrmann 1968)
with wasp remains in their stomachs. Jays have been recorded
feeding on a variety of wasp species, including Hornet (Stachanoff
1928) and Red Wasp (Inozemtsev 1965), and may regularly do so
(Goodwin 1952). Owen (1956) found that wasps were fed to nestling
Jays, and Campbell (1936) and Keve and Sterbetz (1968), during
their analyses of stomach contents of adult Jays, found remains of
social wasps. Charlemagne (1954) recorded that in the autumn,
when wasps emerge en masse in the USSR, the stomach contents of
47 Jays contained 70% wasps. Goodwin (1952) found that his
captive Jays readily ate wasps, and described how the birds dealt
with them. The wasp was bitten hard as the bird seized it and thus
disabled it, after which the Jay directed several pecks at the posterior
225
Predation by birds on social wasps
end of the abdomen before eating the insect. It is of interest that
i Goodwin also suggested that this behaviour is innate in Jays, since
two naive birds treated wasps in a way similar to that seen in ex-
perienced birds.
WASP LARVAE AND PUPAE AS BIRD FOOD
Gilbert White (1789) recorded that his bantam fowls were partic-
ularly fond of the ‘young wasps in their maggot state’ when a
wasps’ nest was provided for them. There is evidence to suggest that
other bird species find the immature stages an attractive food.
J. F. Naumann (in Dresser 1881) stated that Green Woodpeckers
sometimes raid wasps’ nests, and there is also a record of a Grey
Heron feeding on wasp larvae (Witherby et al. 1938-41). R. L.
Winter (verbally) has observed a Jackdaw tearing at the nest of a
ground-nesting wasp and noted that the bird did not appear to be
bothered by the adult wasps which were flying around the damaged
nest. A group of eight Magpies was seen tearing at a nest (Mather
1971), and I watched nine Magpies gorging themselves on the
combs and their contents of two nests of Common Wasps, which had
been placed on the lawn of a garden (Birkhead 1973b). Although
the latter situation was artificial, the behaviour demonstrated that
'Magpies find this food attractive. It would be of interest to know
whether Magpies regularly attack wasps’ nests.
While some birds may be capable of killing and eating isolated
| \wasps, a collection of larvae and pupae poses a particular problem,
I 'since the predator is likely to encounter large numbers of aggressive
adult wasps when attempting to raid a nest. The Honey Buzzard is
apparently sufficiently protected to do this, and other birds such
as Magpies and Jackdaws may also be. Some birds may also take
advantage of wasps’ nests which have already been broken into by
Badgers A. teles rneles or by man.
TOXICITY OF WASPS
Leipelt (1963) observed the reactions of captive Redstarts and Pied
Flycatchers to social wasps and their venom. He provided meal-
worms covered in venom, which the birds clearly found distasteful,
reacting by head-shaking and bill-wiping. Apparently the birds’
buccal mucosa was sensitive to the venom. During some experiments
in which he presented live wasps, two Redstarts were stung in feed-
ing attempts. In the first case the bird fluttered wildly about its
cage, but Leipelt removed the sting from its tongue and it soon
settled down. In the second case the bird was stung near the base
of the bill, and reacted by fluttering excitedly; this was followed by a
six-hour period of apathy, but after seven hours Leipelt considered
226
Predation by birds on social wasps
the bird to have recovered. Although the effect of the sting was not
fatal, if a wild bird were stung during the afternoon and were unable
to feed for six hours it would probably not have sufficient food
reserves to survive the night. In addition, a bird which has been
stung may be more vulnerable to predation. It is interesting that
Leipelt also recorded that some naive birds captured wasps, and
although they were not stung they showed distress symptoms as a
result of the venom coming into contact with the buccal mucosa.
In an experiment recorded by Cott (1940, page 293), it was
observed that Coots Fidica atra ignored wasps floating on the water.
However, on one occasion wasps were taken by both a Coot and a
Mallard Anas platyrhynchos when a mixed group of these species was
excitedly fighting over floating food. The insects were immediately
rejected and head-shaking and bill-wiping followed. These are the
only examples I could find of birds apparently stung by wasps. There
are few records of birds apparently stung by other Hymenoptera,
but Fry (1969) observed an immature Red-throated Bee-eater
Merops bullocki exhibiting distress symptoms after eating its first few
bees, and suggested that it had been stung.
A number of authors have recorded that birds are able to distin-
guish between stinging and non-stinging insects (Lacey 1910, Grant
1945); and Swifts Apus apus (Lack 1956) and Red-throated Bee-
eaters (Fry 1969) can recognise male (non-stinging) bees from female
(stinging) castes. Leipelt (1963) noted that his captive Redstarts
and Pied Flycatchers could distinguish male wasps. However, it is
not known how birds are able to recognise stinging insects. In several
families of V espoidea the male caste has developed a pseudo-sting
(Evans and Eberhard 1970); this is particularly noticeable in the
potter and mason wasps (Eumenidae) but less obvious in the social
wasps. It seems probable that, by mimicking the females’ sting, the
pseudo-sting may confer some additional protection to male wasps.
The principal components of venom of vespid wasps are a protein
which produces allergic reactions in man, an acetylcholine-like
substance, histamine, serotonin and kinin, and the amount of venom
injected in a single sting varies from 0.05 to 0.3 ml (Spradbery
1973). The variation in human reaction to wasp stings is well known
and birds may be equally variable in their reactions. Clearly,
however, because of their smaller size birds may be more sensitive
to sting effects unless they possess some immunity.
Phisalix (1935) is apparently the only worker to have examined
the effects of insect stings on birds. He found that 0.6 mg of Apis
venom per 100 gm of body weight proved fatal to sparrows. Fry
(1969) calculated that on this basis a single sting would prove fatal
to the Red-throated Bee-eater if it possessed no physiological im-
munity.
Predation by birds on social wasps
227
DISCUSSION
Feeding on isolated wasps and raiding nests in order to feed on
larvae and pupae recjuire different strategies. In the first situation
birds must overcome the mechanical effect of the wasps’ stings
in the mouth and gut, and the physiological effect of the venom. In
the second situation a bird must be sufficiently protected to avoid
being stung while attacking a nest.
Birds which regularly feed on isolated wasps, such as bee-eaters
and shrikes, have specialised behaviour patterns enabling them to
disarm their prey. It is interesting that the Jay shows a similar
pattern of preparatory behaviour. In contrast, Honey Buzzards
apparently ingest wasps without any preparation, though they have
been recorded decapitating them. However, decapitation would not
prevent a wasp from stinging once inside the predator’s mouth or
gut. Apparently there is no record of an examination of the mouth or
alimentary canal of the Honey Buzzard to determine whether it
shows any adaptations. In view of the large numbers of wasps that
Honey Buzzards eat, it seems likely that they possess either mor-
phological adaptations of the mouth and oesophagus or some
immunity to venom. On the other hand, bee-eaters’ apparent
immunity to Hymenoptera venom in general (Fry 1969) may be
more of a safeguard, in view of their elaborate preparatory be-
haviour. It has not been demonstrated whether shrikes possess any
immunity.
The small number of bird species that has been recorded raiding
nests of social wasps indicates that the insects’ defence (see Sprad-
bery 1973) is highly effective. Wasp larvae and pupae are probably
an attractive food, but in order to predate a nest successfully a
bird must be sufficiently protected to avoid being stung. It is in-
teresting that I have found no records of small birds attacking
wasps’ nests. The relatively thicker plumage of larger birds may
provide protection, though Skutch (1971, pages 270-271) recorded
tanagers Piranga spp in the tropics and USA attacking wasps’ nests.
Three of the records of birds feeding on nest contents involve cor-
vids: these are well known to be opportunists, ready to take advan-
tage of any such abundant supplies of food.
In conclusion it may be said that, although a wide range of bird
species has been recorded preying on social wasps, only very few
regularly do so, indicating that the insects’ defence mechanisms,
on both an individual and a co-operative basis, are effective.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to L. Cornwallis, Dr E. K. Dunn, Dr C. H. Fry. Dr D. Morse, R. P.
Prys -Jones and Dr J. P. Spradbery, who read and commented on the manuscript.
I would also like to thank Dr E. T. Burtt and L. SchifTerli for their help with
translations, and R. P. Prys-Joncs for locating many of the references.
228
Predation by birds on social wasps
SUMMARY
Predation by European and Russian birds on social wasps (Vespidae) is reviewed.
At least 37 species have been recorded feeding on social wasps, but only a few do
so regularly, namely bee-eaters (Meropidae), shrikes (Laniidae) and the Honey
Buzzard Pernis apivorus. Jays Garrulus glandarius and Great Tits Pams major may also
take these insects more frequently than is supposed. All species which regularly
feed on stinging insects have behavioural or morphological and physiological
adaptations, or both. The few records of birds stung by wasps indicate that venom
is not necessarily fatal, though birds which have been stung are at a disadvantage.
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Soc. Ent. France, 28: 135-136. Mather, J. R. (ed.) (1971) : Ornithological Report 1970
(Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union). Matousek, B. (1951): Sylvia, 13: 122-125.
Necas, J. (1942): Sylvia, 7: 33-50. Newman, H. W. (1863): Zoologist, 21 : 8760-
8765. Norgate, F. (1881): Z0°l°gist> ser- 3> 5:3I3‘325> 410-413. Owen, D. R.
(1956) : Bird Study, 3: 257-265. Owen, J. H. (1914) : Brit. Birds, 8: 114-116; (1929) :
Brit. Birds, 23: 95-96. Phisalix, M. (1935) : Amis Sci. Nat. Z°°l-> 18: 67-95. Powne,
J. D. (1951): Brit. Birds, 44: 405. Rankin, W. T. C. (1950) : Brit. Birds, 43: 403.
Richardson, F. (1965): Ibis, 107: 1-16. Rogers, M. J. (1951): Brit. Birds,
44: 405. Skutch, A. F. (1971): A Naturalist in Costa Rica (Univ. Florida Press).
Spradbery, J. P. (1973): Wasps (London). Stachanoff, V. (1928): Defences
Plantes, 5: 19-23. Stresemann, E. (1943) :J. Orn., 91: 448-514. Szijj,J. (1956-57):
Aquila, 63-64:71-101. Thorbum, A. (1925): British Birds, vol 2 (London).
Trap-Lind, I. (1962): Brit. Birds, 55: 36. Tutman, I. (1949): Lartts, 3: 293-296.
Vasvari, M. (1948-51): Aquila, 55-58: 23-28. Vaughan, R. (1961): Ibis,
103a: 1 14-128. Voous, K. H. (i960) : Atlas of European Birds (London). White, G.
(1789) : The Natural History of Selborne (London). Willis, I. (1972) : Birds, 4: 1 1 - 1 5.
Witherby, H. F., etal. (1938-41): The Handbook of British Birds (London). Wood, J.
(no date) : The Illustrated Natural History of Birds (London).
/ -ndix. European and Russian bird species recorded as having eaten social wasps
(Vespidae) in adult (A) and larval (L) stages
j •: (1916) recorded the Common Wasp Vespula vulgaris, German Wasp V. germanica, Tree
\ ' V. sylvestris, V. ( polistes ) gallica and Hornet Vespa crabro in avian crops, stomachs or pellets,
| id not specify which birds had eaten which wasp species. Vaughan (1961) and Dementiev
1 1 .nd Gladkov (1966-68) recorded only ‘w'asps’, with neither generic nor specific names
( Heron ArJea cinerea (a, l)
1 te Stork Ciconia ciconia (a)
] . ird Buteo buteo (a)
| y Buzzard Pernis apivorus (a, l)
| >y Falco subbuteo (a)
| lora’s Falcon Falco eleonorae (a)
| 1 Tooted Falcon Falco vespertinus (a)
] r Kestrel Falco naumanni (a)
1 idge Perdix perdix (a)
1 -winged Pratincole Glareola
| dmanni (a)
j r • Owl Athene rioctua (a)
i l ie Swift Apus melba (a)
j le-tailed Swift Hirundapus
1 dacutus (a)
J ater Merops apiaster (a)
] r Coracias garrulus (a)
( : 1 Woodpecker Picus viridis (a, l)
I 1 1 Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos
1 tor (a)
] led Crow Corvus corone cornix (a)
1 Corvus frugilegus (a)
J i law Corvus monedula (a, l?)
j poie Pica pica (a, l)
) racker Nucifraga caryocatactes (a)
j iarrulus glandaritis (a)
1 t Tit Parus major (a)
1 1 third Turdtis rnerula (a)
! Thrush Monticola saxatilis (a)
I t : Wheatear Oenanthe leucura (a)
tart Phoenicurus phoenicurus (a)
. t :cap Sylvia atricapilla (a)
1 en Warbler Sylvia borin (a)
ethroat Sylvia communis (a)
:ed Flycatcher Mttscicapa striata (a)
Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca (a)
‘ t Grey Shrike Lanins excubitor (a)
:r Grey Shrike Lanius minor (a)
backed Shrike Lanius collurio (a)
ing Sturnus vulgaris (a)
Vasvari 1948-51, Witherby et al. 1938-41
Hesse 1916
Hesse 1916
Witherby et al. 1938-41, Hagen and Bakke 1958
Hesse 1916
Stresemann 1943, Vaughan 1961
Charlemagne 1954
Charlemagne 1954
Hesse 1916
Dementiev and Gladkov 1966-68
Hesse 1916
Witherby et al. 1938-41
Zolotarev in Dementiev and Gladkov 1966-68
Hesse 1916, Witherby et al. 1938-41, Dementiev and
Gladkov 1966-68, F'ry 1969
Bcrn&th 1958
J. F. Naumann in Dresser 1881, Hesse 1916
Hesse 1916
Hesse 1916
Anon 19x6, Hesse 1916, Marie 1923, Holyoak 1972
R. L. Winter verbally
Hesse 1916, Goodwin 1952, Mather 1971, Birkhead
1973b
Hesse 1916
Hesse 1916, Campbell 1936, Goodwin 1952, Owen
1956, Dementiev and Gladkov 1966-68
Hesse 1916, Fincher 1951, S. M. Pospelov in Demen-
tiev and Gladkov 1966-68
Hesse 1916
Hesse 1916
Richardson 1965
Leipelt 1963
Witherby et al. 1938-41
Charlemagne 1954
Charlemagne 1954
Owen 1914
Leipelt 1963
Witherby et al. 1938-41, Cade 1967, Gronlund et al.
1970
Hesse 1916
Cajander 1929, Owen 1929, Witherby el al. 1938-41,
Gwinner 1961
Hesse 1916, Szijj 1956-57
R. Birkhead, Edward Grey Institute, Department of Zoology, South Parks Road,
nd ox 1 3PS
The Purple Gallinule in the marismas
of the Guadalquivir
Jacques Vielliard
Plates 37-40
Among the birds of Europe one species, the Purple Gallinule
Porphyrio porphyrio, attracts the eye by the brilliance of its plumage
and at the same time shocks it through its grotesque shape: it seems
to be both an intruder from the tropics and a relic from prehistory.
Three times the bulk of the Moorhen Gallinula chloropus , its plumage
a silky purple-blue with metallic reflections, save for the white
undertail, this monster sports an enormous, bright red, triangular
bill, red frontal shield and eyes, and gnarled feet with dispro-
portionately long toes as glowing red as the bill (plate 37).
DISTRIBUTION
The genus Porphyrio ranges over the Old World in four basic types
of coloration. The nominate form, entirely violet, is endemic to
the western Mediterranean region; and the madagascariensis group
of tropical Africa, Madagascar and Egypt has a green back contras-
ting with blue remiges and underbody. The poliocephalus group, from
Turkey to Indo-China, is light blue with the head pale grey; this
passes, in Malaysia, into the melanotus group of very pigmented
forms, the head and back becoming almost black, across the Austra-
lasian region. Vaurie (1965) and some other workers have united
them all in one superspecies but, taking into account the remarkable
isolation around the Mediterranean between porphyrio of the western
basin, aegyptiacus (in the madagascariensis group) of Eygpt and
seistanicus (in the poliocephalus group) of Asia Minor, I prefer to
follow Peters (1934) in regarding these groups as separate species.
Whatever subtle arrangements are proposed, all authors agree
in recognising the distinctness of the violet Purple Gallinule of
the western Mediterranean. The present distribution of this form is
extremely limited: a few favourable sites in northern Morocco,
Algeria and Tunisia; the marismas of the Guadalquivir in Andalusia;
and the marshes of Sardinia (Mocci Demartis 1973). In recent
decades the species has been noted in the Rharb and lower Lucus
(Morocco), in large numbers at Lake Fetzara (Algeria), and on
Lakes Ischkeul and Kelbia (Tunisia), as well as in south-west Spain
as far as Valencia, but it has become very rare with draining. It has
probably disappeared recently from Sicily, and longer since from
southern Portugal. It certainly occupied the Camargue in southern
230
The Purple Gallinule in the marismas 231
France in recent times, where it was seen in 1969 (Hovette 1972),
and likewise the west coast of Italy.
HABITAT IN ANDALUSIA
My observations took place in the marismas of the Guadalquivir
during 1962-65. This region, famous among ornithologists, has been
described in detail by Mountfort (1958) and Valverde (1958). It
consists of an immense stretch of alluvia accumulated by the River
Guadalquivir, ‘Father of Andalusia’, against an arrowhead of
littoral sand dunes which it meets at its mouth. These marshes are,
or rather were, a vast, level mosaic of beds of rushes Scirpus and
sedges Carex subjected to strong drying out in summer; small natural
channels overgrown with reedmace Typha and reed Phragmites drain
the ground but, at the edge of the dunes, a series of deeper lagoons
normally holds water permanently.
In such conditions the Purple Gallinule has developed a particu-
larly well-adapted biological cycle. As soon as the marsh, which
has been baked dry by the Andalusian summer sun, is returned to
water by storms and the flooding of the Guadalquivir, normally at
the end of the autumn, it settles in and begins to nest even before
the vegetation has completely regrown. Hardly are the young cap-
able of flight when the mud dries out and the Scirpus begins to die;
the birds then take refuge in the Typha beds (plate 40a) where
water lies stagnant longer, and later they must withdraw as far as
the littoral lagoons to spend the rest of the summer and autumn
until the marsh is flooded anew. Such are the stages in the annual
cycle of the Purple Gallinule in the marismas.
REPRODUCTION
Elsewhere in the Mediterranean region, the beginning of laying ex-
tends from the end of March up to June (Heim de Balsac and Mayaud
1962). In the marismas, however, clutches as late as this would not
allow the young to become independent before the marshes dry out.
In fact, of the five nests which I found on 15th April 1965, three had
already been vacated by the young and the other two contained
hatched clutches. With an incubation period of about 25 days, this
indicates that laying was completed before 20th March; according
to wardens it may begin in February or even January, with the
first normal hatchings at the end of March. Replacement clutches
and perhaps even normal second clutches are not out of the question.
The speed of development of the chick is not known, but it seems
quite slow and it is probable that all clutches are normally completed
by April (though see pages 232-233).
It would be very interesting to relate the reproductive timetable
of the Purple Gallinule in the marismas to variations in the water
232
The Purple Gallinule in the marismas
cycle. In certain years water levels are low in the Carex-Scirpus
beds at the beginning of spring; the thousands of ducks, rails,
crakes, waders, gulls and terns which usually nest there at that
time do not do so, and summer visitors such as Black-winged Stilts
Himantopus himantopus and Collared Pratincoles Glareola pratincola,
which normally settle in thousands, search farther north for more
favourable sites. The intense evaporation rapidly dries out the
open marsh before the chicks have had time to become independent.
In such years few species but the Purple Gallinule breed, and the
latter is successful (with local exceptions) because of its early
laying and the refuge provided by the denser Typha clumps where
the chicks hide.
The nest of the Purple Gallinule is an enormous construction,
concealed in the clumps of Typha or the densest beds of Scirpus.
It is very easy to find if one moves about on horseback (which is,
besides, the only practical means of locomotion in this marsh), for
one then looks down on the tall Typha and Phragmites ; what is more,
one is put on the trail by the presence near the nest of a wide,
floating carpet of fresh Scirpus cut off level with the water by
the Purple Gallinules, which chew the pith and use the stems for
nest construction. In a few hundred metres I have rapidly found five
nests in this way and it is tempting to speak, following numerous
authors, of a loose colony; in fact, the high density in such places
is due to the localisation of the dense stands of Typha and Phragmites .
One large stand of Typha held two nests at opposite ends while many
isolated clumps were not occupied, leaving a regular spacing between
each nest. The nest is a pile of dead Typha stalks supported on the
bottom and initially emerging only a few centimetres above the
water surface; the eggs are laid in the cup of dry stalks. Each nest
possesses one or sometimes two access ramps, made from a bundle of
fresh Scirpus.
The eggs (plate 40b) resemble those of the Coot Fulica atra but
are larger and more brightly coloured, with underlying blotches of
pale violet and superficial ones of bright maroon ; the ground colour
is usually more solid, but of the clutch of six shown in plate 40b
one egg was distinctly faded and another slightly. The chick on
hatching is covered in long black down; its bright pink feet and
toes, with black nails, are already enormous; the bill, also remark-
ably strong for a chick, is lead-grey with the base and nostrils
blood-red and a white egg-tooth. A large chick, almost the size of a
fully grown Coot but still incapable of flight, was caught by hand
on 2nd August 1964 (plate 37b). Although we have no standards for
estimating its age, it indicates an abnormally late clutch made
possible by the very long flooding period of the marsh that year but
nevertheless very delayed behind other clutches, since all the other
233
The Purple Gallinule in the marismas
immatures I observed at that time could fly and had the build of
adults. This bird shows that the first plumage following the neoptile
down already has the pigmentation of immatures, dark matt blue
above and light greyish below, and that the legs and feet, red from
the outset, grow rapidly to allow a fast run before the wings have
grown; the bill and frontal shield, still growing, are lead-blue.
I have been able to recognise several stages of immature pigmenta-
tion, which I suspect correspond only to subtle variations of the
first plumage but which have enabled me to make local censuses.
The red of the rhamphotheca starts at the frontal shield where at
first it forms an edging, gradually reaching the tip of the bill by
August. Body moult is noted from October. I suspect that imma-
tures resemble adults before the end of their first vear.
/
VOICE
At the time of my observations nothing was known of the voice of
the Purple Gallinule but the alarm cry, emitted sometimes when
taking flight and vaguely described as like a blast on a trumpet. The
vocal repertoire is, however, extremely rich and varied, but it is
uttered from cover, often at night and during occasional short
periods of excitement, especially in April. I made the first recordings
of ‘song’ in 1965 and Roche (1966) completed them the following
year. One vocal emission consists of a wailing which has something
in common with that of the Water Rail Rallus aquations', it is a long,
unbroken series of powerful but very plaintive rattles, without
preamble and reaching a crescendo, the veritably human tone of
which is striking. This is emitted at the end of the afternoon and at
dusk by an isolated bird and plays, it seems, the role of a song.
Other calls are, on the contrary, short and sharp, like brief blasts
on a whistle, but all kinds of variations may be heard: brief grunt-
ings, horn and trumpet blasts, and sounds like the ringing of
a small bell which become gradually sharper and more nervous-
sounding until their tone is more like the trumpet blasts. This
repertoire of calls is emitted at night in chorus and increases in
intensity as excitement grows.
FEEDING BEHAVIOUR
Nowadays it is well known that Purple Gallinules feed on vegetation
and sometimes animal matter and that they use their feet as grip-
ping devices (Glutz von Blotzheim et al. 1973). My original obser-
vations give several precise details. In August, when the Scirpus beds
are dry, the Purple Gallinules, especially juveniles, gather in the
Typha jungle of the channels which are still wet; these dense bands
of reedmaee are bordered by a bare, muddy beach which one can
easily watch over hidden in one of the clumps of rushes Juncus which
234
The Purple Gallinule in the marismas
border the dry Scirpus marsh. The Purple Gallinule seeks its food on
foot and, by preference, when it feels it is safe, walks along the mud
beach. Food items are seized first in one foot, more often the right
foot; the basic diet is pith extracted from fragments of Scirpus
and especially from shoots, as well as rhizomes, of Typha. These
vegetable fragments are grasped between the toes, which are
clenched a little, and lifted up halfway (with tarso-metatarsus held
horizontally) towards the bill; if they fall to the ground they are
picked up again with the foot and not the bill, even if the efforts to
grip them turn out to be in vain. Pieces which cannot be grasped
between the toes, such as rhizomes, are held by a foot while being
torn with the bill.
The impact of the Purple Gallinules on the Typha appears to be
very important, sometimes with signs of spectacular uprooting, to
the point that I have wondered whether they were not risking
destroying their own habitat. The regenerative power of Typha makes
this improbable, but the birds are certainly containing the spread of
the Typha and playing a part in maintaining the borders and
openings which favour their movements in this jungle.
The animal part of the diet is improperly known but substantial,
including many dead fish taken from small pools that are drying out.
This was well illustrated by the following experience I had in the
marismas. A semi-automatic camera was baited with a Mullet Alugil
sp about 30 centimetres long, freshly killed. The Purple Gallinules
which passed nearby, walking slowly along the reed-bed in search of
food, were immediately interested, and several different individuals
approached in turn throughout that day and the next (plates 38-39) .
Each feeding bird remained wary and took its time to eat small
beakfuls of flesh: one foot was quickly placed on the fish, then the
branchiae under the gill cover were attacked with the bill; later the
pectoral fin was torn off to reach the flesh. At the beginning one
bird, made uneasy by the noise of the camera shutter, seized the fish
by the tail with its bill, tore it up from the mud and, despite its
weight, ran off with it swinging to and fro between its feet; I had
to rush out from my hide to make it abandon my bait. (The formi-
dablestrengthof the bill can also leave smarting marks on the ringer.)
The feet continued to play a role in this feeding behaviour, though
they quickly became slimed over through trampling in soft mud. As
always in birds, behaviour patterns are stereotyped and their vain
repetition becomes comical: this was the case when one individual
was trying to pick up, between its toes, a piece of flesh hanging
from its bill which could not be seized like a stiff reed stem.
MOVEMENTS
The Purple Gallinule is very much a stay-at-home bird. During
235
The Purple Gallinule in the marismas
uninterrupted observations I have recognised some individuals
coining and going along a course of only a few tens of metres for
several days on end. In the evenings the birds settle down in small
groups in the reeds, which they clutch with their toes and where they
spend the night safe from terrestrial predators. In the morning they
are slow to resume daytime activities and sometimes allow themselves
to be closely approached. Sun-baths are appreciated in the middle of
the day.
Though reputed to be sedentary, in the marismas the Purple Galli-
nule makes cyclic seasonal movements. The most typical occurs after
breeding, when the Typha beds to which the birds have retreated in
turn begin to dry out; late, unfledged young have already rejoined
the adults at the residual waterholes; now there is a general exodus
towards the coastal lagoons and, no doubt, to the arms of the river.
These movements take place at night over open ground — cracked
marsh and sparsely vegetated grassland — and observations indicate
that they are made entirely on foot: the Purple Gallinule could thus
be classed as a pedestrian migrant! Even when disturbed on open
ground it is loath to fly but runs very fast. On the deep lagoons where
it awaits the re-flooding of the marsh, it does not swim out in the
open; if it has to move away quickly it flies heavily, dropping
feet-first into the first thick reed-bed it finds.
PROTECTION
Through its robustness, its secretive nature, its wide-ranging diet
and its adaptable biological cycle, the Purple Gallinule seems
destined for a good future. Not only does history show us the
contrary but present-day circumstances render its survival more and
more precarious. Certainly the species was, at the time of my studies,
very abundant in the marismas, but I saw it also to be very vulnerable
to predation, despite appearances. Its flesh is highly esteemed by
man and it is the easiest bird to catch, even by hand, with a little
patience: some workmen came to repair a dyke near the site of my
observations, and on the following day I found traces of a small
fire beside a pile of Purple Gallinule feathers! The semi-domesticated
pigs being released in ever larger numbers on the marsh to fatten
up must often be doing so to the detriment of the Purple Gallinules.
The Typha is a flourishing plant but demands precise conditions of
flooding. It is no secret that the marismas are plundered, while
the Goto Dohana reserve itself includes only a small proportion of
the marshes, very insufficient for the maintenance of aquatic fauna.
Reintroduction in the Camargue seems to me very feasible and might
be a success; otherwise one of the most extraordinary birds of Europe
may even now be heading fast towards extinction.
236
The Purple Gallinule in the marismas
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am grateful to D. A. Christie for translating this paper from French.
REFERENCES
Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N., Bauer, K. M., and Bezzel, E. 1973. Handbuch der
Vogel Mitteleuropas. Frankfurt am Main, vol 5.
Heim de Balsac, H., and Mayaud, N. 1962. Les Oiseaux du Nord-ouest de VAfrique.
Paris.
Hovette, C. 1972. ‘Nouvelles acquisitions avifaunistiques de la Camargue’.
Alauda, 40: 343-352.
Mocci Demartis, A. 1973. ‘Avifaune du Campidano d’Oristano (Sardaigne)’.
Alauda, 41 : 35-62.
Mountfort, G. 1958. Portrait of a Wilderness. London.
Peters, J. L. 1934. Check-list of Birds of the World. Cambridge, Mass, vol 2.
Roche, J.-C. 1966. Europe Sud: Tome II du Guide Sonore des Oiseaux d' Europe.
Institut echo, Aubenas-les-Alpes, France.
Valverde, J. A. 1958. ‘An ecological sketch of the Coto Donana’. Brit. Birds,
51: 1-23-
Vaurie, C. 1965. The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna: Non -Passeriformes . London.
Jacques Vielliard, Societe d’Etudes Ornithologiques, Ecole Normale
Superieure Labor atoire de Zoologie, 46 rue d’Ulm, Paris 5, France
Notes
Black Storks wing-spreading while feeding Since I can find no
published reference to the habit in Black Storks Ciconia nigra of
spreading their wings to shade the water in which they are fishing,
the following may be worth recording.
In June 1973, during a trip to north-east Portugal — the principal
object of which was to confirm that Black Storks still nest there —
it was noticed that birds of this species frequented a small area
of beach on the bank of the River Douro to feed. The food consisted
almost entirely of fish 15-25 cm long (sometimes larger) and
was easily obtained because vast shoals were continually cruising
up and down that part of the river.
The fishing bird stood or walked in shallow water, every few
moments raising and spreading its wings wide and bringing them
forward of the normal flying position, bowed and inbent, while it
darted its head into the water to grasp a fish. In this it was never
seen to fail, so abundant was its prey and so effective its method.
Occasionally the catch was made after a forward run of two or
three steps. From ten to twenty or more fish were caught on each
visit, after which the bird always flew off in the same direction,
presumably to a nest holding fairly large young.
Notes
237
Ordinary fishing methods were also seen and the choice of method
did not appear to be related to the brightness of the light, since
wing-spreading was seen in light so poor as to make photography
virtually impossible.
The spot was visible, from the opposite side of the river, from
the balconies of the rooms of all members of my party, and thus
feeding was often watched. Being just above a dam, the river was
very wide at this point and the birds were far too distant for satis-
factory photographs to be obtained. I am therefore grateful to
D. I. M. Wallace for preparing the sketch below from enlarge-
ments of three negatives taken with an 800 mm lens. An equally
distant cine film was also taken. M. D. England
Mashobra , Neatishead, Norwich nor 37Z
This habit is well known in the Black Egret Egret! a ardesiaca
of Africa. In A New Dictionary of Birds (1964) Sir A. Landsborough
Thomson described it as follows: ‘ . . . the bird stands motionless
in the shallows, with bill directed downwards, while the wings are
held extended in a forward position so that they form a canopy over
the head. The tips of the wing feathers may be in the water, if the
latter is deep enough, as some published photographs show. It is
thought that the patch of shade constitutes a false refuge into
which the fish are lured; it has also been suggested that the bird’s
vision is helped by the cutting out of reflections from the surface
in a bright light’. The Black Egret forms a more complete ‘umbrella’
in front than did the Black Storks in Portugal. The above obser-
vations do not support the idea that this behaviour is related to
the intensity of light falling on the water surface or to the effect
of reflections. Eds
Notes
238
Aggressive behaviour by Buzzards at nest Reports by G. A.
Williams and D. Coan, and Dr K. W. Brewster {Brit. Birds, 66:
31-32, 279), of aggressive behaviour by female Buzzards Buteo buteo
prompt me to record the following notes. I was attacked by Buzzards
in a Lakeland valley in 1972, 1973 and 1974. In 1972, on each of two
visits to the vicinity of a nest in a Scots pine in a small wood, to which
I did not ascend, the presumed female was extremely bold. She
perched conspicuously on adjacent trees, calling and from time to
time swooping at me, and also followed me, swooping every now
and then, as I left the wood and crossed open ground.
In 1973 I made more detailed observations on an aggressive
female which was nesting on a crag about km from the 1972 nest.
Whether this was the bird mentioned above is not known, but
observations made in 1974 (see below) suggest that it was. On
15th May she was sitting tight and left the nest only when I ap-
proached closely. Although I began to leave immediately after
ascertaining her presence, and without examining the nest, I was
repeatedly attacked. Each attack was pressed home as the bird
swept down the craggy hillside, passed very closely over my head
(the draught of her passing being clearly felt) and rocketed steeply
upwards on outstretched wings, much like a swooping gull. Always
was I attacked from behind, as Williams and Coan almost invariably
were. If I turned towards the bird as she approached, she invariably
passed over much less closely. An oblique glance revealed lowered
talons as she appeared over a rock and began her descent. Even
after I had left the site and was walking around the bottom of the
crag at least 200 metres from the nest, I was occasionally attacked.
On 22nd May the female again left the nest as I approached, but
I immediately and quickly withdrew and no attack was made; but
on 15th June, when two young not greatly dissimilar in size and
perhaps 15 to 16 days old were in the nest, I was persistently and
vigorously attacked. This time the attacks, mostly silent, were made
both down and, more often, across the crag, though some descent
was always involved. Ironically they were less intense as I looked
into the nest from above, perhaps because it was near the top of the
crag and little cover was available for the early part of the bird’s
approach. Both parents were vociferous at this stage and remained
much nearer the nest than is often the case. Aggression was displayed
again on 25th June.
Such behaviour differed markedly from that displayed, for example,
by three other pairs of Buzzards observed in the same region in 1973,
two with nests on crags, one in a tree. None of these ever attacked
me, and one pair in particular was notable for the way in which
both birds departed to considerable distances long before the nest
was approached closely and never returned to within 100 metres of
Plate 37. Young Purple Gallinules Porphyria porphyria. Spain. 1964 photos:
Jacques Vielliard). Above, immature, October: the bill by this time is red, like
the hides. Below, very late juvenile incapable of flight, caught by hand, August:
matt dark blue above, bright greyish below, bill and frontal shield both
still growing) lead-blue, huge feet and toes red from the start pages 230-236
Plate 38. Immature Purple Gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio coming at dawn to fish
bait, Spain, August 1964 ( photos : Jacques Vielliard). These two photographs
and those opposite show different attitudes of the same individual (page 234).
Below, note well-developed red frontal shield; bill, eyes and legs are also red
Plate 39. Purple Gallinule pecking at dead fish and walking away: the long toes
are buried in the soft, sticky mud. Note white undertail-coverts. Basic diet
is pith extracted by the birds from Scirpus fragments and Tvpha shoots and
rhizomes, but animal matter is also taken. The plant in the background is Tvpha
Plate 40. Typical post-breeding season habitat of Purple Gallinules Porphyria
porphyrio in marismas of Guadalquivir, Spain, August 1964, showing bare, muddy
patches from which the last remaining pools are evaporating, and a thick bed
of Typha. Below, clutch of six well-incubated eggs laid in huge nest made of
dry fragments of Typha, April 1965 (pages 231-232) ( photos : Jacques Vielliard)
Notes
2 39
it while I was in the vicinity.
In 1974 a pair of Buzzards, including what was almost certainly
the aggressive bird of the previous two years, nested on a crag
less than 500 metres from the 1972 nest, the wood containing
which it overlooked, and about 2 km from the 1973 nest. Here aggres-
sion identical with that shown in 1973 was displayed, first on 21st
May, when eggs must have been in the nest, and on subsequent occa-
sions when it contained young. Vigorous dive-bombing occurred
while I was on the crag, and the bird frequently swooped and
virtually skimmed my head while I was in the open below it, some-
times at least 200 metres from the nest. Less interest was shown
while I was above, and nearer, the nest but not in sight of it. To look
into the nest was a somewhat hazardous undertaking on account of
the very steep, sometimes almost vertically downward, diving attacks.
The bird also displayed a proprietary interest in the small wood con-
taining the 1972 nest, flying through it while I was present and at
times perching on trees not more than 20 metres away.
Aggression by Buzzards was reported by W. R. Philipson (1948,
Birds of a Valley ), whose experience in Lakeland was apparently
similar to mine. When, on one occasion, he covered his head with a
coat and stood still, he was struck by a bird’s talons. His account
suggests that more than one pair displayed such behaviour, which
apparently he did not regard as unusual in the area. On the other
hand F. Wenzel (1958, The Buzzard) was attacked only once during
observations on over 100 pairs in Denmark, but was told of similar
aggression displayed by a pair in two successive years. Likewise,
although M. Melde (1971, Der Mausebussard), referring particularly
to German birds, noted that some Buzzards become aggressive and
molest climbing would-be ringers, he did not indicate that, in his
considerable experience, he had seen such behaviour himself and
merely cited W. Kirchhof ( Vogelzug , 8: 30) to this effect. J. Walpole-
Bond (1914, Field-Studies of Some Rarer British Birds ) also mentioned
aggressive pairs that ‘very exceptionally’ attack an intruder, though
according to him with the male as leading protagonist. Although he
referred to the same pair as ‘resorting to these drastic measures
year after year’, he had never himself been so attacked. Variation in
aggressiveness, like that of coloration, appears to be an attribute of
this species, the proportion of aggressive individuals perhaps
differing in different regions. G. Fryer
Eller ay Cottage, Windermere, Westmorland LA23 iaw
Territorial display by Sparrowhawks Dr I. Newton (Brit.
Birds, 66: 274-275) described several forms of aerial display by
Sparrowhawks Accipiter nisus and suggested that, as well as function-
ing in courtship, they probably serve to advertise the nesting area to
240
Notes
other Sparrowhawks, thus helping spacing. Since starting a general
study of birds of prey in the Ilfracombe area of Devon in late 1972,
I have witnessed many such displays, although none has been identi-
cal with any which he detailed and only a very few have seemed to
be spontaneous or a part of courtship. Most have followed a fairly
set pattern : display by a single, presumably unmated bird, usually
female, possibly trying to establish itself in the area, evoking a
spirited and sometimes quite aggressive response from the resident
of the (almost invariably) same sex. The mate of the resident bird
often joins in, and up to four birds have been seen together, but in
most incidents females are dominant and in the majority no males
have been involved. Single birds, particularly females, do sometimes
appear to be performing alone, but experience has taught me that
in most cases (though not invariably) a check on the surrounding
area will reveal another of the same sex. Such displays end only
when the ‘intruder’ resumes normal flight and leaves the area.
Local conditions probably determine the type and intensity, and
particularly the seasonal incidence, of display, since in this area,
where Sparrowhawks are breeding residents, display coincides to a
marked degree with the presence of birds surplus to local breeding
stock, although such birds are tolerated even after breeding has
started so long as they make no attempt to display. I have as yet no
records of display in the period July-September, but it is seen
quite regularly from October onwards as overwintering birds arrive.
There is often an increase in activity in March and April when there
is a variable, weather-dependent, easterly passage through the area,
mainly of females, both adult and immature. Display decreases
quickly in May as incubation starts, and I have only three records
for June.
Two types of display seem to be particularly favoured in this area,
‘slow-flighting’ and ‘dive-displaying’. Some displays may consist
simply of a spell of slow-flighting, when the flight is quite distinctive.
The wing beats are slow, deep and deliberate, and continuous, with
no intervals of gliding as the bird flies around rather aimlessly,
usually at a constant height and often over a quite small area.
Superficially the outline is similar to that of a bird in normal level
flight, the tail being closed and the primaries not separated; but at
close quarters the white undertail-coverts are seen to be fanned out
on either side of the body, the extent to which the feathers are
separated being varied according to the intensity of the display
and possibly by the status of the bird. Frequently, while slow-flight-
ing in this way, a variation is introduced in which the bird suddenly
closes its wings and dives almost vertically for five to ten metres, then
spreads its wings and tail for a fraction of a second to check the fall
and pivot it back upwards, again almost vertically and with wings
Notes
241
and tail closed. The change of direction is accomplished so abruptly
that the bird seems to bounce. When upward momentum is lost, the
hawk tilts gently forward and the slow wing-beating is resumed
until the next dive. Spontaneous displays involving a pair are usually
ended by the birds’ diving at speed down into the breeding wood,
where the male may chase the female in and out of the upper
branches before each settles, but when a territory-holding bird and
another are involved display-flight changes quite suddenly into
normal flight and the participants usually leave in different direc-
tions, the resident bird always finishing last after a final short spell of
slow-flighting in which the head can be seen turning from side to side
as the bird checks for further rivals.
Most displays have some unique quality, but a particularly
interesting sequence was seen on 28th April 1973 in a territory on the
western side of Ilfracombe, a favourite area since birds can be
watched at very close quarters and the resident female, an unusually
well-marked bird barred below with dark coppery-red, readily
identified. I was seated in the early morning on a hill above the
coast, looking inland, and for some time had been watching a male
Sparrowhawk as it ‘played’ with a Carrion Crow Corvus corone over
the bracken- and scrub-covered side of a small valley, or cleave,
running parallel with the coast and about 700 metres away from
me. The Sparrowhawk then broke away to settle in a small hawthorn
near the top of the slope. For a few minutes there was no activity,
then I saw two adult female Sparrowhawks circling quite close
together in slow display flight over the valley side. One, as it passed
above, dipped down briefly towards the hawthorn in which the male
had settled, then the two females headed directly towards me over
the valley and nearer open downland, flying parallel to one another
and about 20 metres apart. Having both in my field of view at the
same time, I could see that, although each was displaying contin-
uously, their behaviour differed. The bird on my right (that
nearer the perimeter of this particular territory and the farther from
the breeding wood) was freely slow-flighting and dive-displaying;
while the other (which I now saw was the resident female), although
slow wing-beating only, had adopted an exaggerated posture with
the wings very bowed and beating unusually slowly and deeply,
the head held up and back and the breast thrust forward, to give
it at times a quite startling resemblance to a YVoodpigeon Columba
palumbus. As they approached, this latter bird also started to dive-
display; then, still in the same relative positions, they reached me
and started to circle around above me at a height of perhaps 50
metres, displaying continuously and, as is usual at such times, quite
indifferent to my presence. As they passed over my head I was
able to see that the white undertail-coverts of the resident bird were
242
Notes
widespread, each feather being clearly separated from the next, while
those of the other bird seemed to be closed. For perhaps a minute
they circled above in this way, then the behaviour changed: the
resident female started to circle more widely and dive more freely,
and I could see that the other had now stopped displaying and was
gradually drifting westwards, still circling, along the coastal downs.
Then, changing to a long glide, it went steadily away along the coast
before turning inland about a kilometre away. The resident bird
had now left and I saw no further activity during the rest of my
watch.
Such incidents rarely last more than five minutes, but exception-
ally, on 5th April 1974, a display of a rather different nature
involving this pair and another female persisted for more than ten
minutes without pause. W. E. Jones
Ford House , Northjield Road , Ilfracombe , Devon EX34 8al
Coot attacking Herring Gull On 13th May 1973, a windy, fairly
bright day, I was seated in a hide overlooking a gravel pit reserve
near Dungeness, Kent. A pair of Coots Fulica atra was swimming
about in front of the hide. One of the Coots swam towards a small
group of gulls about 50 metres away and, on reaching them, attacked
an immature Herring Gull Larus argentatus in the water, feet first,
both birds thrashing about on the surface for a few seconds before
the Coot disengaged and swam back towards the hide. The gull was
left floating with its wings half open and its head sunk beneath the
surface. The wind blew the gull on to the shore where it flapped
its wings but could not move up the bank. It slipped back into the
water, to be blown about at random while flapping its wings feebly
and trying to keep its head above water. Quite suddenly, however,
it seemed to recover and took off. F. W. Hibbert
g6 Eaton Crescent, Swansea, Glamorgan
Great Black-backed Gull attacking Common Gull On 23rd
October 1973 Alan Brown and I were observing waders at Budle
Bay, Northumberland, when my attention was suddenly drawn to a
scuffle on the mud, about 200 metres from us. Some 25 to 30
Common Gulls Larus cams and Black-headed Gulls L. ridibundus
were flying about above an adult Great Black-back L. marinus which
had just grabbed an adult Common Gull with its bill, grasping it
firmly behind the head. The Great Black-back paid no attention
whatsoever to the screaming gulls overhead. The Common Gull
opened its wings to their full extent and remained on its feet, but
was led by the larger bird into the water. When the water was
breast-deep, the Great Black-back tried to force its victim under,
and the latter made its first serious attempt to escape. This it
Notes
H3
achieved, but it was immediately recaptured and the same move
repeated. The Common Gull now became more determined and
finally shook itself free from what appeared to be a very strong
hold. Once on the wing it flew off, apparently unharmed and
showing no visible signs of weakness or distress. The Great Black-
back did not pursue it and indeed appeared to lose interest in the
whole matter almost instantly. Raymond H. Hogc
School House, Crosshill, May bole, Ayrshire KA19 7RH
lDirect head-scratching by Rook in flight The Rook Corvus frug-
ilegus, like other corvids and the majority of other passerines,
habitually head-scratches ‘indirectly’ by lowering the wing and
bringing the foot up to the head over the humerus (see Ibis, 99:
178-181; 103a: 37-49). On 1 8th January 1968, however, at Chew
'Valley Lake, Somerset, I clearly saw one of the Rooks that I
regularly provisioned with peanuts briefly head-scratch ‘directly’
in the air as it flew off with food, bringing the foot straight up to the
head under the wing while lowering the other foot, presumably
in balance. As I have pointed out elsewhere (A vie. Mag., 80: in press),
in a discussion on apparent exceptions to the rule that the head-
scratching method is a fixed, species-characteristic behaviour pat-
tern, direct head-scratching in flight by birds that otherwise scratch
indirectly would seem to occur mainly in such aerial species as the
frigatebirds Fregata spp (see, for example, J. Orn., 105: 340-343) and
hummingbirds (Trochilidae) (A vie. Mag., 79: 200-202), though
there is also one record for the Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta ( Ardea ,
25: 1-62). K. E. L. Simmons
Department of Psychology, The University, Leicester lei 7RH
Reviews
The Naturalist in Majorca. By James D. Parrack. David &
Charles, Newton Abbot, 1973. 224 pages including 16 black-
and-white plates; 14 line-drawings; one map. £3.95.
In recent years Majorca has often been considered a lost paradise,
its scenery scarred by tourist developments, its roads and beaches
grossly overcrowded and its wildlife dissipated. This is a partial
truth. The magnificent mountains and sea cliffs of the north and
west are still largely unspoiled, the hotels and swarming beaches are
confined mainly to the south and east, while, as Dr Parrack makes
clear, the island offers the naturalist some rare and easily accessible
delights. To these he provides a lucid and remarkably full guide,
covering all aspects of Majorcan wildlife from geology, plants, insects,
other invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles and mammals to birds. On
244
Reviews
all these he gives much information not readily available, and shows
that even in this much visited island there are many discoveries yet
to be made.
For the birdwatcher there is a long chapter surveying the breed-
ing species in the main habitats, the wealth of migrants and the
winter visitors. The nesting birds include a number rarely seen so
readily elsewhere, from Eleonora’s Falcon, Black Vulture, Audouin’s
Gull (whose breeding sites still remain to be discovered) and Cory’s
Shearwater to Thekla Lark and Marmora’s Warbler. This chapter
is supplemented by a concise checklist, but in view of the wealth of
material, much unpublished, provided by the many visiting orni-
thologists in recent years, it is to be hoped that, as was apparently
originally intended, the author will soon proceed with a much
fuller version.
Majorca, despite development, remains a paradise for the natura-
list, but there are pressing dangers. Shooting, though reduced, is
still widespread; the wetlands are under serious threat, and the
excellent roads which have opened up the mountain areas could
lead to undue disturbance to the wealth of breeding predators.
Perhaps this stimulating and wide-ranging guide will lead to further
support for the moves already being made to establish national parks
and reserve areas before it is too late. Stanley Cramp
The Countryman Bird Book. Edited by Bruce and Margaret
Campbell. David & Charles, Newton Abbot, 1974. 194 pages;
17 black-and-white plates; 43 line-drawings. £3.50.
How nice for the omnivorous reader of bird books to meet so many
old friends: Arthur Gilpin crouching happily with camera in an
Orcadian peat bog; Bill Condry writing lovingly of Redstarts in that
cottage garden of his at Ynys-hir; Dugald Macintyre listening to
the music of the Whoopers, while sheltering from an Atlantic storm;
Bruce Campbell himself, brooding on the relationships between
Turnstones and Purple Sandpipers. And nice, too, to find so many
new names writing compellingly about their birds.
Anthologies divide into two groups: those akin to the glossy
weeklies, to be flipped through, a picture to be savoured here and
there, the odd piece read because the title or subject catches the eye;
and those that demand to be read like a narrative because they are
so obviously full of interest. The deft touch of the Campbells ensures
that their book falls with a solid thump into the second group.
Arranged in alphabetical order from Bitterns to Wrens, species,
families and groups are covered either by way of illustration or by
extracts from past issues of The Countryman. Much of the information
has an original flavour. Robert Gillmor (his Robin anting is delight-
ful), Donald Watson, Richard Richardson and many others have
Reviews
2 45
sprinkled the pages with pleasure for us. Particularly, I liked Edward
Bradbury’s drawing of a tree-nesting Shelduck and his accompany-
ing text.
The photographs are conventionally good and a notable gem is
Stephen Dalton’s Grasshopper Warbler pretending to be a Water
Rail. I do give notice, however, that for the time being I have seen
quite enough of ‘that’ Spotted Crake and ‘that’ decelerating Barn
Owl, splendid photographs though they be. But that is a minor
bit of carping about a book that, in its class, qualifies for a rosette.
Derek Barber
Seventy Years of Bird-Watching. By H. G. Alexander. T. &
A. D. Poyser, Berkhamsted, 1974. 264 pages; 14 black-and-
white photographs; 6 maps and 26 line-drawings by R.
Gillmor. £3.80.
Twenty years ago in September I stepped ashore on Fair Isle and
spotted among the observatory incumbents intent on Britain’s first
Citrine Wagtail a tall, fragile-looking man with the stamp of a
veteran ornithologist. On enquiring who he was, two letters were
my swift admonishment — ‘H. G.’. I choked back my ignorance of
what they meant. I soon knew, however, for over the next ten days I
watched his great experience prove to be the catalyst of the wagtail
identification. I also admired his considerable toughness as he went
after a newly arrived Scarlet Rosefinch with a freshly broken arm
calmly strapped out of the way. My first meeting with H. C.
Alexander was one of the most important checkpoints along my
ornithological way. It was therefore with real pleasure that 1 took up
this book.
Essentially the chapters are particles of an ornithological auto-
biography, but the scenes and acts are changed so freely that there
is no regular sequence to the record of a lifetime’s birdwatching.
Some might find this confusing, but I enjoyed the freedom to sample
the evocative vignettes and share in the acutely remembered suc-
cesses (and failures) in discovery and knowledge logged over seventy
years. Through this book, those who fret about modern ornitho-
logical disciplines can understand what it was like to be judged by
H. F. Witherby, and those who depend on high-powered glasses can
sense the limits of a X 4 telescope — good enough to identify three
Pallas’s Sandgrouse, though!
Also in this book are many short chronicles of important events
and essays on the author’s particular interests, for example the
demise of the Kentish Plover, bird migration over the Himalayas
(sadly incomplete, owing to loss of material), and the making of the
Willow Tit into a British bird. If not all the subjects are fully
developed, the questions put consistently bear witness to his astonish-
Reviews
246
ing power of observation. His overriding enthusiasm for birds and
birdwatching, and his underlying humility in ornithology, are
visible on every page. This is a book about birds and their students
by one of those remarkable gentlemen who virtually founded the
hobby and science of birdwatching. What ‘H. G.’ has particularly
given to it is a persistently kind humanity, and this book will stand
as a reminder of the importance of such a contribution for future
generations. D. I. M. Wallace
Letters
Identification of juvenile Arctic Terns In their paper on the
identification of juvenile Sterna terns {Brit. Birds, 62: 297-299,
plate 53), P. J. Grant and R. E. Scott emphasised that bill colour is
an important character in separating juvenile Arctic S. paradisaea
from Common S. hirundo, the latter’s bill having the basal half
pale flesh-coloured. This is not invariably a good distinction, at
least early in the first autumn, when a significant proportion of
young Arctics also have a pale (though orange) base to the bill,
easily seen in the field.
On Unst, Shetland, in 1973 at least 560 pairs of Arctic Terns bred
in 1 7 colonies. Very few Common Terns were seen and they were not
proved to breed at all: consequently none was present for com-
parison. Between 5th and 23rd August I obtained excellent views, at
close range and in all light conditions, of up to 80 juveniles at one of
the larger colonies. They were all flying strongly, though at various
stages of parental care and development, and spent much time
resting in short-cropped grass on a low cliff-top, where they were
frequently visited by adults, and where I was able to take several
photographs of them. After 1 1 th August numbers declined consider-
ably, the bulk of the population having left the area entirely.
On 7th August, 55 (69%) of 80 juveniles seen well had a very
noticeable orange basal third to the bill, while on one the bill
was mainly orange with only a black tip. This orange colour was
especially characteristic of the most recently fledged birds. On 1 oth
August another count produced eleven (31%) with an orange base
to the bill out of 35 present. This feature was obvious even in flying
birds at over 100 metres. The rest had mainly black bills, with a
pale crimson to reddish base visible when seen well in good light.
The bill presumably darkens during the first autumn and winter.
Some of the juveniles also had a noticeable gingery wash on the
mantle. It is difficult to describe the strength of this colouring
very satisfactorily, but it was sometimes quite conspicuous in the
Letters
247
field. Furthermore, on 8th August (but not subsequently) a very few
birds, probably the most recently fledged, had dark sooty-brown
foreheads. The gingery wash, easily discernible in the field, is a
character which Grant and Scott referred to the Common Tern but
not to the Arctic.
Thus, although about 60% of the juveniles at this colony broadly
conformed very well with the description and plate in Grant and
Scott (1969), clearly some caution is necessary when identifying
recently fledged Common Terns on bill and mantle colour alone. It
would appear that in a migrant swarm, where both species might
occur, the best characters for separating juvenile Arctic are the
translucent underwing, the pure white secondaries and rump when
viewed from above, and the lighter build, all well described and
illustrated in the paper cited. Graham Bundy
Old Manse, Baltasound, Unst, Shetland
We showed this letter and the four transparencies supplied by
the author to P. J. Grant and R. E. Scott, and PJG’s comments
follow. Eds
I am most surprised at the high proportion of juveniles showing
extensively pale-based bills. I wonder if this colour is lost rapidly
once migration is under way, as hundreds of juvenile Arctics I have
seen (all migrants) have had bills which looked all-black at any dis-
tance greater than, say, 30 metres. Also I am surprised at the orange
colour of the bill base: this, too, is contrary to previously published
data which suggest ‘dull crimson’, ‘blood red’ or ‘red’. Once again,
it is possible that the colour darkens rapidly after the birds leave
the nesting colony.
The gingery-brown wash on the mantle was mentioned in our
paper as also occurring in juvenile Arctic Terns, though very rarely
in sufficient strength to be noticeable in the field. Recently fledged
Common Terns invariably have this colour very prominently,
though in some cases they lose it quite quickly through abrasion;
when present it is always a very useful field mark, if only supple-
mentary to other characters.
We stated that some very newly fledged Arctic Terns, still with
a little feather down, did not have white foreheads. As Mr Bundy’s
observations show, in extreme cases the forehead may be sooty-
brown, perhaps overlapping with our description of juvenile Roseate
Terns S. dougallii, so a caveat is required on this score.
These careful observations are most interesting and useful.
Clearly, caveats to our paper are needed, particularly for recently
fledged birds still at their breeding colonies. P. J. Grant
16 Windermere Court, Quant ock Drive, Ashford, Kent TN24 8re
News and comment Robert Hudson
World Wildlife Fund expenditure The spring issue of World. Wildlife News
contains a 1973 report of the World Wildlife Fund. Its British National Appeal
had a most sucessful year, raising nearly £800,000, almost 40% more than in 1972;
and for the first time the entire costs of administration were covered by dividends
and interest. Within the United Kingdom, the biggest British National Appeal
grants went to the British Trust for Conservation Volunteers (£6,020) and the
Council for Nature (£5,400) ; while £5,000 each were alloted towards the purchase
of Sandwich Bay, Kent, and the provision of an information centre at Paignton
Zoo. Internationally, £18,522 went towards an extension of Lake Nakuru National
Park in Kenya, and £13,477 towards the purchase of a new reserve at Marchauen
in Austria; lesser sums included £3,500 towards conservation of the endangered
Bald Ibis in Turkey, £3,000 for bird of paradise conservation in New Guinea, and
£2,000 for conservation in the Canary Islands. Internationally-funded WWF
projects in Britain, arguably among the more important 1973 tasks, included
£26,823 for land purchase and management in the Ouse Washes, £2,733 towards
the purchase of Martin Mere Wildfowl Refuge, and £10,000 towards the establish-
ment of Caerlaverock Wildfowl Refuge. From time to time, hard words are used
against the WW’F for aspects of its publicity and funding; yet it may congratulate
itself on having done sterling work in 1973.
RSPB Film Unit awards Three of the top awards at this year’s British Spon-
sored Film Festival have been won by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds,
against competition from some of the country’s largest film-making units. The gold
award in the top category for prestige films of general interest went to the RSPB’s
film ‘A world within itself’, a lyrical look at the plant and animal life of an English
oakwood through the four seasons, based on a book by the late H. E. Bates. The
other two award winners were ‘Look again at garden birds’, an in-depth study of
some of Britain’s commonest species; and ‘Farming with wildlife’, which describes
how three farmers manage to reconcile the need to farm for a living with the
desire to enjoy the countryside in the process. These three films will be shown at
over 1 00 RSPB-organised film shows in various parts of the country before the end
of the year; while an 8 mm version of ‘Look again at garden birds’ is to be made
available as a home movie.
Whitethroats and arboviruses Some of those who are not content with the
easier explanations for the recent decline in Whitethroat numbers have been
waiting for more details following a statement by Dr G. E. Watson, in the Annual
Report of the Smithsonian Institution Center for Short-lived Phenomena for 1969 (pp. 137-
1 38), that a comparatively high rate of infection with arboviruses (that is, arthropod
or tick-borne viruses) had been noticed with this species in Egypt in the autumn of
1968: they occurred in 9.3% of Whitethroats examined, compared with an overall
rate of only 1% in all birds sampled. On pages 176-180 of the Proceedings of the
Fifth Symposium on the Study of the Role of Migratory Birds in the Distribution of Arbo-
viruses (Siberian Branch of the publishing house ‘Nauka’, Novosibirsk, 1972), Drs
Watson, R. E. Shope and M. N. Kaiser report that birds were collected for these
investigations in Egypt in the autumns of 1966 and 1968 and in the springs of
1967 and 1969, and in Cyprus in autumn 1967 and spring 1968. It was found
that 3,300 samples yielded 54 pathogenic agents, presumably viruses, 40 of them
belonging to a distinct Bahig complex. Over half came from warblers of the genus
Sylvia, and eleven from Whitethroats. All but two, isolated from a Swallow and a
Song Thrush, were found in the autumn, suggesting that the infections originated
248
News and comment
249
somewhere in eastern Europe or western Asia. As mentioned in the original report,
the highest incidence of infection found was the occurrence of five viruses among
54 Whitethroats collected in Egypt in the autumn of 1968. It may be wondered
whether they managed to infect west European birds in the winter quarters, but
apparently no investigations have yet been carried out to discover whether the
latter show signs of past infection. (Contributed by Dr W. R. P. Bourne.)
Salmonella infections in wild birds It has been known for some years that
Salmonella bacteria are present quite commonly in gull droppings at London area
reservoirs and elsewhere (see ‘News and comment’, Brit. Birds, 61: 276); while
since 1964 there have been a number of S. typhimnrium outbreaks among Green-
finches and House Sparrows feeding at bird-tables in southern England, reported
byj. W. MacDonald and L. YV. Cornelius in Brit. Birds, 62: 28-30. Hitherto there
has been no positive evidence that this infection has been transmitted to man;
but a recent note by Mr MacDonald and D. D. Brown ( Veterinary Record, 94: 321-
322) reports four cases of human salmonellosis, involving the phage-types associated
with birds. Two of these cases occurred in Glasgow, and no history of contact with
wild birds could be established. However, in the other two, both in Orkney, there
was such a link, one through a ‘sparrow’ caught by the patient’s cat, and the other
through direct handling of a dying (shot) gull. As the authors remark, it may be
relevant that a feature of two S. typhimnrium outbreaks in southern England was the
disappearance of semi-feral cats which had been preying on infected birds.
Some continental news Several brief items in the Council of Europe Newsletter
74-3 caught my attention, and may be worth passing on. Cyprus: One of the first
suggestions made to the government by the new Cypriot Nature Conservation
Council was for the establishment of a nature conservation department ; meanwhile,
a provisional list of potential nature reserve sites has been drawn up by a committee
under the Forestry Department. Spain : The shooting or other killing of all raptors,
as well as certain other scarce species, such as Spoonbill, White and Black Storks,
and Marbled Teal, was prohibited by Ministerial decree during the 1973-74
season ; also banned was the import, export and internal trade in specimens of the
protected species, and it became illegal for taxidermists to possess their skins.
Corsica: Special measures have been introduced to protect the declining local
population of Ospreys; the nesting area in the regional park has been placed
strictly out-of-bounds during the nesting season, and will be guarded. Greece: A
new national park of 19,380 hectares, plus a protection belt of 4,900 hectares, has
been established in the Prespa Lakes region; breeding birds of the area include
13 of the 28 species considered by the Council of Europe to require special protec-
tion in Europe. West Germany: Hunting and shooting has been banned on the east
coast of the Waddensee, and the Schleswig-Holstein administration plans to
incorporate 140,000 hectares in a proposed new national park. The German
Society of Animal Photographers has decided that its members should refrain from
nest photography of certain endangered German species, such as the Night Heron,
Peregrine and Eagle Owl; and the German Section of the International Council
for Bird Preservation has urged magazine editors to refuse publication of nest
photographs of these species. Sweden: A 1968 Act concerning animal taxidermy
has been tightened up: as from 1st May 1974, Swedish taxidermists will have to
notify the Ministry’ for Nature Conservation of all specimens they receive.
Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds
Errata, May issue Wc a;xilogise for the following typographical errors:
Page 212, line 35, comma should be apostrophe;
Page 213, in line 20 of comment, should read ‘do not seem satisfied’;
Page 216, in line 3 from foot, should read ‘Atlas of'.
March reports and winter summary
D. A. Christie
These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
As announced in the April issue, the commoner species are now generally omitted from the
monthly reports and instead will be dealt with separately, season by season. The first of these
periodical summaries, covering mainly January-March 1974, follows the March reports
below.
A White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii, the first to be reported in 1974, was on
Loch Fleet (Sutherland) from 24th March into April. At Frensham Little Pond
(Surrey) three Bitterns Botaurus stellaris were seen to leave to the north-east
on 14th. Two Spoonbills Platalea leucorodia were in the Sheppey/Swale area of
Kent all month, and singles were seen in the Mersey on 17th and at Broomhill
Flash, near Barnsley (Yorkshire), on 27th and 28th; one was present on the
River Lynher (Cornwall) up to 30th and one on the Exe marshes (Devon) from
31st onwards. A record count of 126 Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula was made at
Belvide Reservoir (Staffordshire) on 27th, while five Scaup Aythya marila at
Drakelow Reservoir (Derbyshire) on 3rd were a little unusual. A drake King Eider
Somateria spectabilis stayed at Culross (Fife) from 10th to 13th, further south
than most records of this increasingly frequent visitor, and a drake Surf Scoter
Melanitta perspicillala remained off Loch Fleet Bar from 21st March to 14th April.
An early migrant Osprey Pandion haliaetus appeared at Sevenoaks (Kent) on
23rd, when one was also seen in Langstone Harbour (Hampshire).
Two further reports of Kentish Plovers Charadrius alexandrinus , both from
Kent, followed the exceptional February one (Brit. Birds, 67: 220) — two at
Sandwich Bay on 28th and one at Bough Beech Reservoir on 29th and 30th. A
rather uninspiring month was enlivened by the appearance of a Killdeer C.
vociferus at Sidlesham Ferry (Sussex) on 30th. A Curlew Sandpiper Calidris
ferruginea, perhaps a very early migrant, was at Cliffe (Kent) on 16th. Two
Avocets Recurvirostra avosetta returned to Minsmere (Suffolk) on 5th and 50
were back by the end of the month, while singles were at Brough Haven (York-
shire) on 9th and at Dungeness (Kent) on 27th. After some unusual winter reports
of skuas Stercorarius spp, very few were recorded in March— two Great S. skua
at Fair Isle (Shetland) on 27th and one on 29th (possibly early-returning breeding
birds), a Pomarine S. pomarinus at Teesmouth (Co. Durham) all month, and
three Arctic S. parasiticus flying south and seven north off Seaton Sluice (North-
umberland) on 3rd, followed by one south on 16th. A Little Auk Plautus alle
was found dead at Ross (Northumberland) on 12th.
A Great Grey Shrike Lanius excubitor on Fair Isle from 26th to 28th (trapped)
was the earliest spring record there, this species being almost entirely a passage
migrant in Shetland. A Serin Serinus serinus was reported at Twickenham (Middle-
sex) on 15th March. Lastly, there was a most interesting report from Port Grat
(Guernsey) of a Richard’s Pipit Anlhus novaeseelandiae which arrived on 24th,
the first record for the Channel Islands, if accepted ; this vagrant has occurred in
spring rather more frequently in recent years (though still exceedingly rarely),
but not as early as March. The bird was last seen on 23rd April.
The winter season
In a mild winter, conditions were generally good for wildfowl. There were more
Teal Anas crecca than in any winter since the early 1960’s, and more Wigeon
A. penelope than ever before: record counts of these species and of Pintail A. acuta
in the Mersey have already been mentioned (Brit. Birds, 67: 1 3 1 ) , while the
2 5°
25 1
March reports and winter summary
Ouse Washes (Lincolnshire/Norfolk) held 35,000 Wigeon from January to March.
Similarly, Pochard Aythya J'erina reached record numbers: Duddingston Loch
in Edinburgh (only about 8 ha in extent) held 8,000 in January, and flocks
of 1,000 or more were recorded at several other places. Long-tailed Ducks
Clangula hyemalis were particularly widely distributed and well represented inland
on the larger lakes and reservoirs; in England the highest count was off Ross, 233
on 23rd February.
British censuses of geese showed increases in peak populations during the last
three winters from 22,000 to 39,000 Dark-bellied Brents Branta bernicla
bernicla (the known world population having increased from 34,000 to at least
80.000) , from 64,000 to 76,000 Greylags Anser anser, and from 65,000 to 82,000
Pinkfeet A. brachyrhynchus. Record numbers of Dark-bellied Brents were noted
at Foulness (Essex) in November (over 16,000, more than 40% juveniles) and
in Langstone and Chichester Harbours (Hampshire/Sussex) in December (about
12.000) , though Pale-bellied Brents B. b. hrota appeared in only slightly above
average numbers in north-east England. The regular wintering flock of Pinkfeet
in south-west Lancashire peaked at 14,000 in the first week of December. White-
fronts A. albifrons at Slimbridge (Gloucestershire) increased steadily from late
September to reach a peak of 4,500 on 20th January, including a large percentage
of first-year birds; the last were seen there on 14th March. A Lesser Whitefront
A. erythropus stayed with them from 2nd December until late February. Barnacle
Geese B. leucopsis wintered in very high numbers in Scotland — about 1 8,000
on Islay (Inner Hebrides) and 5,100 (over 20% first-year) at Caerlaverock
(Dumfriesshire), including four white birds. Of 350 Barnacles ringed in Spits-
bergen in summer 1973 by the Wildfowl Trust, 329 were identified at Caerlaverock.
At their principal wintering site at Welney on the Ouse Washes. Bewick’s
Swans Cvgnus bewkkii reached a peak of 1,100 on 3rd January, including 201
cygnets. At Slimbridge the highest number on any one day was rather low, 294
on the last day of 1973, though 541 individuals (24% cygnets) were recorded
during the winter; elsewhere in south-west England a record 358 were counted on
Wet Moor (Somerset) on 20th January. We have very little information on
Whooper Swans C. cygnus . but the smaller herds in north-west England included
several record counts, and the proportion of cygnets seemed higher than in recent
years.
The smaller grebes were generally more numerous than usual, the highest counts
of Slavonian Grebes Podiceps auritus reported being 40 off Ross and 30 in Port-
land Harbour (Dorset) in February.
After the spectacular influx of Rough-legged Buzzards Butco lagopus in October
(Brit. Birds, 67: 35), there were numerous sightings during the winter from
most parts of Britain, including Somerset in January and February and south
Wales in March. The most seen together was apparently eight in the Bransdale
Valiev (Yorkshire), while reports suggest that 15 or so wintered in East Anglia.
A Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus was at Seasalter (Kent) on 20th January and
up to six wintered at three sites in Suffolk. A Corncrake Crex crex at Cissbury
Ring (Sussex) on 9th December would, if accepted, be the first winter record
for that county since 1908.
Away from regular winter quarters in the west, there were 20 Spotted Red-
shanks Tringa erythropus and 14 Greenshanks T. nebularia on the north Kent
marshes, while a few Avocets were scattered in Yorkshire, Kent, Sussex and Dorset.
Little Stints Calidris minuta were seen at a dozen or more places, mosdy in ones
and twos, but a flock of 13 wintered at Dibden Bay (Hampshire), temporarily
increasing to as many as 18 on 26th January. There was also an unusual report of
up to two inland at Staunton Harold (Derbyshire).
The many reports of Glaucous Larus hyperboreus and Iceland Gulls L. glaucoides
concerned mostly singles, with a high proportion of first- and second-year birds.
252
March reports and winter summary
Glaucous Gulls were particularly conspicuous and several places had small
parties in January-March: at least ten off the Aberdeenshire coast in February was
perhaps not unexpected, but further south seven or more were present in Co.
Down in January and February, five at St Ives (Cornwall) on 2nd February,
and at least five in the Dungeness area from mid-February. Five Iceland Gulls
were off the Aberdeenshire coast in February, but much more unusual was a
report of at least three in the Chesil Beach/Portland area from early February
to about 20th March. Three Iceland were recorded in Somerset during March and
three at Blackmoorfoot Reservoir (Yorkshire) during January-March; altogether
we heard of about 20 Glaucous and twelve Iceland on inland reservoirs. At
least four Mediterranean Gulls L. rnelanocephalus were seen in west Cornwall in
January; while in the Weymouth/Portland area a minimum of eight was estimated
during February and five in March, the most seen together being four in Weymouth
Bay on 1st March. The few other reports were also mainly from southern Britain.
The unprecedented numbers of Little Gulls L. minutas in Ireland have already
been mentioned (Brit. Birds, 67:1 66) ; very few were recorded in Britain other than
at Formby (Lancashire), where a wintering flock reached 83 on 27th February,
and Eglwys Nunydd Reservoir (Glamorgan), which had up to 50 in March.
Shore Larks Eremophila alpestris were not particularly numerous, Minsmere
holding the largest flock, of 40, for most of the winter. Singles wintered unusually
far west in Dorset at Portland and Poole. The largest flock of Twites Acanthis
flavirostris reported to us was 550 at Sandwich Bay on 1st January; 120 at Crossens
Marsh on 24th February was a record for the Lancashire coast, while up to 145
at Dibden Bay during the winter were also of note. Gatherings of 400 or more
Bramblings Fringilla montifringilla were reported from nine places, the largest by
far being two flocks each of at least 1,000 at Brewood (Staffordshire) on 3rd Feb-
ruary (cf. Brit. Birds, 66: 240) and at Beddington (Surrey) on 1st March. There
were several three-figured flocks of Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis in eastern
Britain in December and January and more inland reports than usual, the latter
including sizeable parties on high moorland in Northumberland (25) and Derby-
shire (twelve). After a good autumn passage, Lapland Buntings Calcarius
lapponicus were poorly represented, with only very small numbers in Northumber-
land, Norfolk and Kent, and singles in Cardiganshire, Lincolnshire, Hampshire
and Lancashire and on the Calf of Man.
About 15 Blackcaps Sylvia atricapilla and 20 or more Chiffchaffs Phylloscopus
collybita were reported, though both species were no doubt overlooked; and a
Willow Warbler P. trochilus at Finmere (Oxfordshire) on 7th March was also
presumed to be wintering. In the Hampshire river valleys counts of Water Pipits
Anthus s. spinoletta revealed at least 25 along the Itchen and 20 on the lower Test,
the county total probably being in excess of 50 birds. At least two Black-bellied
Dippers Cinclus c. cinclus wintered in Norfolk.
Great Grey Shrikes were widely distributed over the whole of Britain and even
described as ‘common’ on the heaths and downs of north-east Hampshire, another
reflection of a generally very successful breeding season in the Arctic in 1973.
On the other hand, apart from an influx in Norfolk in early December (Brit.
Birds, 67: 132), Waxwings Bombycilla garrulus were rare (though widespread):
up to six were noted together in Aberdeen in January and in Tyneside in February
and all other reports were of one to four birds at 35 localities.
STOP PRESS
In the Teesmouth area there was a Short-toed Lark from 21st June to at least
4th July, a Broad-billed Sandpiper from 23rd to 29th June, and a Lesser Grey
Shrike from 29th to 1st July. A Marsh Sandpiper was at Belvide Reservoir on
29th June; a possible Greater Yellowlegs near Sidlesham Ferry on 6th July; and
a Ross’s Gull in Christchurch Harbour (Hampshire) from 1st to nth July.
List of county and regional recorders
in Britain and Ireland
The main aims of this list of bird recorders and editors are to ensure
that observers on holiday away from their home areas send records
to the right people, to encourage co-operation at the inter-county
and intra-county levels, and to provide a source of reference for
those collating records on a national basis. Several counties are
divided into areas for recording purposes, but to save space, and
because we believe it is less confusing, the list generally includes
one name only against each county or region. For the same reasons
we have largely discontinued our previous practice of mentioning
observatory and other local reports which overlap with the county
or regional ones, though some of these contain much important
information. Titles of publications are added only when they do
not include the name of the county or counties concerned. We shall
be glad to know of any errors, omissions or changes of address.
ENGLAND
All counties or regions arc now publishing or intending to publish
annual reports:
Bedfordshire B. D. Harding, 26 Woodlands Avenue, Houghton Regis, Dunstable,
Bedfordshire
Berkshire P. E. Standley, Siskins, 7 Llanvair Drive, South Ascot, Berkshire SL.5 911s
Buckinghamshire R. E. Youngman, 53 Seymour Park Road, Marlow, Buckingham-
shire SL7 3ER
Cambridgeshire M. J. Allen, Honey Cottage, Honey End, Fenstanton, Huntingdon-
shire
Cheshire Dr R. J. Raines, 34 Beryl Road, Noctorum, Birkenhead, Cheshire
Cornwall N. R. Phillips, Cuccurrian Mill, Ludgvan, Penzance, Cornwall
Cumberland R. Stokoe, 4 Fern Bank, Cockcrmouth, Cumberland
Derbyshire David Amedro, 212 Derby Road, Ilkeston, Derbyshire DE7 5FB
Devon F. R. Smith, 1 17 Hill Barton Road, Exeter, Devon exi 3PP
Dorset F. R. Clafton, Portland Bird Observatory and Field Centre, The Old Lower
Light, Portland Bill, Dorset
Durham I. F. Stewart, 3 Orchard Way, Middlesbrough, Teesside TS5 5PN
Essex A. J. Howard, 18 Woodside Close, Colchester, Essex C04 3HD; J. Thorogood,
49 Oaklands Avenue, Colchester, Essex 003 set; and A. R. Wood, 2 Buxton
Road, Monkwick Estate, Colchester, Essex
Gloucestershire C. M. Swaine, Mill House, Rendcomb, Cirencester, Gloucestershire
GL7 7EY
Hampshire J . H. Taverner. 13 Stockers Avenue, Winchester, Hampshire
Herefordshire A. J. Smith, 4 The Orchard, Moreton-on-Lugg, Hereford HR4 8dg
Hertfordshire M. J. Blindell. 6 Townsend Drive, St Albans, Hertfordshire AL3 5RD
Huntingdonshire D. Elias, Monks Wood Experimental Station, Abbots Ripton.
Huntingdon PE17 2LS
Isle of Wight J. Stafford, Westering, Moor Lane, Brighstonc, Newport, Isle of
Wight P030 4DL
Isles of Scilly D. B. Hunt. Pednbrose, St Mary's, Isles of Scilly
253
254
County and regional recorders
Kent C. H. Hindle, 42 Glenbervie Drive, Heme Bay, Kent ct6 6ql
Lancashire K. G. Spencer, 3 Landseer Close, off Carr Road, Burnley, Lancashire
Leicestershire K. Allsopp, 81 Uplands Road, Oadby, Leicester LE2 4NT
Lincolnshire K. Atkin, 34 Bassingham Crescent, Ermine Estate, Lincoln LN2 2et
London K. C. Osborne, 8 Ellice Road, Oxted, Surrey rh8 opy
Monmouthshire see wales
Norfolk M. J. Seago, 33 Acacia Road, Thorpe St Andrew, Norwich, Norfolk
NOR 7IT
Northamptonshire C. J. Coe, 3 The Orchard, Flore, Northampton NN7 4LH
Northumberland B. Galloway, 1 15 Southway, South Denton, Newcastle upon Tyne
NE15 7RD ( Birds in Northumbria)
Nottinghamshire A. Dobbs, Cloverleigh, Old Main Road, Bulcote, Nottingham
NG14 5GU
Oxfordshire J. W. Bruckcr, 65 Yarnton Road, Kidlington, Oxfordshire 0x5 iat
Rutland as Leicestershire
Shropshire C. E. Wright, Larne, Park Avenue, Whitchurch, Shropshire SY13 ish
Somerset Miss E. M. Palmer, Highfield, Sandford Hill, Bridgwater, Somerset
TA5 2AY
Staffordshire B. R. Dean, 2 Charingworth Road, Solihull, Warwickshire B92 8ht
( West Midland Bird Report)
Suffolk W. H. Payn, Hartest Place, Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk IP29 4EQ
Surrey Mrs J. D. Parr, 40 Leatherhead Road, Ashtead, Surrey
Sussex C. M. James, 21 River Mead, Horsham, Sussex
Warwickshire as Staffordshire
Westmorland as Cumberland
Wiltshire G. L. Webber, 66 Southbrook Extension, Swindon, Wiltshire SN2 ihg
Worcestershire as Staffordshire
Yorkshire J. R. Mather, 44 Aspin Lane, Knaresborough, Yorkshire
The London Bird Report also includes Middlesex and those parts of
Buckinghamshire, Essex, Hertfordshire, Kent and Surrey within 20
miles of St Paul’s Cathedral. A number of other reports overlap with
adjacent ones to a greater or lesser extent and cover parts of one
or more counties: among the most important is the North-Western
Bird Report, published by the Merseyside Naturalists’ Association
(Eric Hardy, 47 Woodsorrel Road, Liverpool L15 6ub), which ranges
widely over north-west England and north Wales. There is now
generally a good exchange of information between overlapping
reports and between local and county publications, but in a few
instances co-operation is still only partial or even lacking and we
again urge those concerned to resolve such situations which greatly
add to the work of any national collator and confuse the casual
visitor.
ISLE OF MAN
Records are collected by the Manx Museum and National Trust,
and edited by Dr J. P. Cullen, Troutbeck, Cronkbourne, Braddan,
Isle of Man, for publication in The Peregrine, which is produced
by the Isle of Man Natural History and Antiquarian Society and
the Manx Bird Club.
County and regional recorders
255
WALES
The annual ‘Welsh Bird Report’, compiled by P. E. Davis and P.
Hope Jones, is published in the twice-yearly journal Nature in Wales.
Reprints are obtainable from Mr Davis (Ty Coed, Tregaron,
Cardiganshire) or Mr Hope Jones (Bedwen, Bro Enddwyn, Dyffryn
Ardudwy, Merioneth). This presents a summary of records in Wales
as a whole, but county or regional reports are also published and
recording is on a county basis:
Anglesey P. J. Dare, Tan-yr-Allt, Trefriw, Caernarvonshire ( Annual Report of Cam-
brian Ornithological Society)
Breconshire M. E. Massey, Windyridge, Pennorth, Breconshire
Caernarvonshire as Anglesey
Cardiganshire P. E. Davis, Ty Coed, Tregaron, Cardiganshire
Carmarthenshire D. H. V. Roberts, 38 Heol Hathren, Cwmann, Lampeter, Cardigan-
shire
Denbighshire as Anglesey
Flintshire R. R. Birch, 8 Thornbcrry Close, Saughall, Chester
Glamorgan {except Gower peninsula) S. F. Young, 197 Cathedral Road, Cardiff cfi 9PN
Glamorgan { Gower peninsula only) H. E. Grenfell, The Woods, 14 Bryn Terrace.
Mumbles, Swansea, Glamorgan
Merioneth as Anglesey
Monmouthshire W. G. Lewis, 11 Ruth Road, New Inn, Pontypool, Monmouthshire
Montgomeryshire R. R. Lovegrove, The Walk Mill, Mochdre, Newtown, Mont-
gomeryshire
Pembrokeshire J . W. Donovan, The Burren, Dingle Lane, Crundalc, Haverfordwest,
Pembrokeshire
Radnorshire as England, Herefordshire
SCOTLAND
The annual ‘Scottish Bird Report’, compiled by R. H. Dennis, is pub-
lished in the quarterly journal Scottish Birds , the editor of which is H.
Greig, Scottish Ornithologists’ Club, 21 Regent Terrace, Edinburgh
EH7 5BT. This presents a summary of records in the whole of
Scotland, but recording is on a regional basis, partly by counties
and partly by the ‘faunal areas’ shown on the map at the end of
volume 2 of E. V. Baxter and L. J. Rintoul’s The Birds of Scotland
l1 953). Note that Skye and the Hebrides are treated separately from
the counties in which they lie. With the county system modified in
this manner, alphabetical listing is unsatisfactory and the area
recorders are therefore taken from north to south :
Shetland {except Fair Isle) R. J. Tulloch, Reafirth, Mid Yell, Shetland
Fair Isle R. A. Broad, Bird Observatory, Fair Isle, Shetland
Orkney E. Balfour, Isbister House, Rendall, Orkney
Outer Hebrides {except St Kilda) Dr P. G. Hopkins, Leurbost Schoolhouse, Isle of
Lewis, Ross-shire
St Kilda Dr I. D. Pennie, Varkasaig, Scourie, Lairg, Sutherland
Caithness Mrs P. M. Collett, Sandyquoy, East Gills, Scrabster, Caithness KW14 yun
Sutherland , Ross-shire {except Black Isle) D. Macdonald, Elmbank, Dornoch, Suther-
land
256 County and regional recorders
Inverness-shire ( within 18 miles of Inverness), Ross-shire ( Black Isle only ) Dr Maeve
Rusk, Arniston, 51 Old Edinburgh Road, Inverness
Inverness-shire ( mainland more than 18 miles from Inverness ) R. H. Dennis, Landberg,
North Kessock, Inverness ivi ixd
Nairnshire, Morayshire, Banffshire J. Edelsten, 14 South High Street, Portsoy,
Banffshire AB4 2nt
Aberdeenshire, north Kincardineshire A. G. Knox, Department of Zoology, University
of Aberdeen, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen AB9 oaa and W. Murray, Culterty
Field Station, Newburgh, Aberdeenshire AB4 oaa
South Kincardineshire, Angus G. M. Crichton, 23 Church Street, Brechin, Angus
Perthshire R. L. McMillan, 29 Lewis Place, North Muirton, Perth
Kinross-shire Miss Bridget H. Moore, Loch Leven Nature Centre, Vane Farm,
Kinross
Isle of May Miss N. J. Gordon, Nature Conservancy Council, 12 Hope Terrace,
Edinburgh EH9 2as
Fife D. W. Oliver, East Cottage, Balass, Cupar, Fife
Clackmannanshire, east Stirlingshire Dr C. J. Henty, 3 The Broich, Alva, Clack-
mannanshire
West Lothian, Midlothian, Forth islands ( except May) R. W. J. Smith, 33 Hunter
Terrace, Loanhead, Midlothian
East Lothian, Berwickshire K. S. Macgregor, 16 Merchiston Avenue, Edinburgh
eh 10 4NY
Peeblesshire, Roxburghshire, Selkirkshire A. J. Smith, Glenview, Selkirk TD7 4 lx
Argyll, Inner Hebrides, Skye M. J. P. Gregory, Duiletter, Kilmory Road, Lochgilp-
head, Argyll PA31 8nl
Dunbartonshire, west Stirlingshire, Renfrewshire, Lanarkshire, Ayrshire, Arran, Bute R. W.
Forrester, 29 Crandleyhill Road, Prestwick, Ayrshire KA9 2be
Dumfriesshire D. Skilling, 86 Auchenkeld Avenue, Heathhall, Dumfries and R. T.
Smith, Applegarthtown, Lockerbie, Dumfriesshire
Kirkcudbrightshire, Wigtownshire A. D. Watson, Barone, Dairy, Castle Douglas,
Kirkcudbrightshire
In addition to the ‘Scottish Bird Report’, there are annual reports
covering Shetland (except Fair Isle), Fair Isle and the Isle of May.
IRELAND
The annual ‘Irish Bird Report’, edited by K. Preston, The Rennies,
Boreenmanna Road, Cork, and available from S. Cromien, 13
Fingal Place, Prussia Street, Dublin 7, covers the whole of Ireland.
In addition county or regional reports are produced for the following
areas :
Dublin and Wicklow C. D. Hutchinson, 74 Marlborough Road, Donnybrook,
Dublin 4
Waterford M. O’Meara, 153 St John’s Park, Waterford
Wexford O. J. Merne, National Wildfowl Refuge, North Slob, Wexford
‘The colonisation of England by the Firecrest’ : a correction In the paper
by L. A. Batten on the spread of the Firecrest Regulus ignicapillus as a breeding
species in England (Brit. Birds, 66: 159-166), the subdominant conifer at the
Bedfordshire site was given as Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii (page 162); this
should have been Norway spruce Picea abies.
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Marine Pollution Bulletin is published monthly and
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comment, reviews and research reports not only on the
threats of noxious substances to marine life but also
on the management and productivity of the marine
environment in general. It publishes accounts of new
and proposed research programmes as well as the
results of those in progress.
Recent research reports include:
Distribution of Caesium-137 in British Coastal Waters,
D. F. Jefferies, A. Preston and A. K. Steele. Export of
Lead from Salt Marshes, M. Banus, I. Valiela and J. M.
Teal. International Scope of Marine Pollution Damage,
D. P. Tihansky. Effects of Red Mud on Marine
Animals, R. A. A. Blackman and K. N. Wilson.
Pollution Problem of the Golden Horn, M. Karpuzcu.
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144 INGRAM STREET, GLASGOW G1 1EJ 041-221' 6666
Volume 67 Number 6 June 1974
221 Predation by birds on social wasps T. R. Birkhead
230 The Purple Gallinule in the marismas of the Guadalquivir /
Jacques Vielliard Plates 37-40
Notes
236 Black Storks wing-spreading while feeding M. D. England
238 Aggressive behaviour by Buzzards at nest G. Fryer
239 Territorial display by Sparrowhawks W. E. Jones
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242 Great Black-backed Gull attacking Common Gull
Raymond H. Hogg
243 Direct head-scratching by Rook in flight Dr K. E. L. Simmons
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Volume 67 Number 7 July 1974
The White-billed Diver in Britain
David M. Burn and John R. Mather
Plates 41-44
PAGE
INTRODUCTION 258
BREEDING DISTRIBUTION AND RANGE 259
POST-BREEDING DISPERSAL 259
MOULT AND WINTER PLUMAGE 261
THE IDENTIFICATION PROBLEM 262
EXAMINATION OF PRESERVED SPECIMENS
Birds in breeding plumage 264
Birds in non-breeding plumage 267
SUMMARY OF IDENTIFICATION CHARACTERS 269
MEASUREMENTS 2’J'X
SUMMARY OF BRITISH OCCURRENCES
Numbers, distribution and status 276
Spring moult in Britain 279
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 281
SUMMARY 28l
REFERENCES 282
APPENDIX: REVIEW OF THE BRITISH RECORDS
Introduction 283
Accepted records 284
Insufficiently substantiated records 290
Rejected records (wrongly identified) 292
List of observers 293
References 293
258
White-billed. Diver in Britain
INTRODUCTION
Since 1829, nearly 40 individuals of the White-billed Diver Gavia
adamsii have been recorded in Britain. As 30 of these have occurred
within the last 25 years, the species is not necessarily the extreme
rarity that its total numerical standing tends to indicate. Furthermore
it is sufficiently similar to the Great Northern Diver G. immer in
winter, juvenile or immature plumage that many birds must pass
unrecognised, or at least unclaimed. This paper presents the find-
ings of the work we have conducted over several years on the
elucidation of the problems of identification, together with a synthesis
of some of those known aspects of the bird’s natural history which
we feel are of value and interest to the field ornithologist. We hope
that it will encourage and enable readers to examine critically all
large divers so that the true status of this species off our coasts can be
more clearly defined than the present records allow.
G. adamsii was first described by George Robert Gray in 1859
from an adult in breeding plumage collected in Alaska. Its distinc-
tion from immer , however, was appreciated by Captain James Clark
Ross some 30 years previously when he collected three specimens
Table 1. The popularly accepted differences between the Great Northern
Diver Gavia immer and the White-billed Diver G. adamsii
Characters marked with an asterisk apply to breeding plumage only
Original
Character
G. immer
G. adamsii
authority
* head and neck
mainly green
mainly purple
iridescence
* white spots on
smaller
larger
scapulars
* white spots on
larger
smaller
► Gray 1859
sides of rump
bill size
smaller
larger
gonys angle
poorly
strongly
developed
developed
* bill colour
black
yellowish-white
.
'
* white throat streaks
about 12
about 6
* white neck streaks
about 18 on
about 10 on
►Seebohm 1885
each side
each side
J
culmen
curved
straight
commissure of upper
concave
straight to
mandible (‘cutting
edge’ or maxillary
convex
►Collett 1894
tomium)
primary shaft colour
dark brown
whitish
cross-section of bill
more rounded
flatter
Witherby 1922
White-billed Diver in Britain
259
from an area north of Hudson Bay. Against his better judgement,
he was dissuaded from claiming them as a distinct species by Edward
Sabine, who believed them to be merely old males of immer (See-
bohm 1885). Gray’s description was based on the first six characters
listed in table 1. Subsequently, a further six characters of greater
or lesser importance were described. Many of these characters are
shown well in Sage (1971). Although some twelve ostensibly
diagnostic characters have been recognised, the separation of the
two species in breeding plumage can be based on bill colour alone.
BREEDING DISTRIBUTION AND RANGE
The breeding ranges of the two species have been described by
several authors (Bailey 1948, Dementiev 1951, Snyder 1957,
Irving i960, Palmer 1962, Godfrey 1966), but perhaps the most
comprehensive assembly of the known information is that given by
Bannerman (1959). However, since his treatment is so detailed and
lacks some additional data which have subsequently come to light,
the following summary (and speculation) may be useful.
The two divers together have a basically circumpolar Holarctic
breeding distribution, but the ring is broken between Iceland at the
one end and western Russia at the other. G. adamsii breeds within
a relatively narrow band about 1,000 km wide, lying mainly north
of the Arctic Circle (fig. 1). This band extends from the region of
the Varanger Fjord, on the borders of northern Norway and
western Russia, and extends eastwards to the Siberian tundra,
Alaska and north-west Canada. G. miner breeds mainly south of the
Arctic Circle in Alaska, Canada (where it extends as far south as
the Great Lakes), coastal Greenland and Iceland. The small area
of overlap at the edges of the ranges of the two species in Alaska
and north-west Canada has led some workers — notably Dementiev
(1951) — to consider them as conspecific, and this has given rise to
speculation regarding possible hybridisation and/or continuous
variation of characters. While this may be biologically possible, the
lack of any direct evidence for hybridisation and a suggestion of a
species-isolating mechanism resulting from a difference in choice of
habitat (Sage 1971) indicate the unlikelihood of this conspecificitv
theory.
POST-BREEDING DISPERSAL
At the end of the breeding season, late in September, the advancing
ice forces adamsii away from its breeding grounds to the coastal
wintering areas further south. The statement by Voous (i960) that
‘even during the winter the species rarely leaves the ice-covered
coastal seas’ is difficult to understand, for there are several references
to assemblages of birds in seas well south of the ice for both New and
26o
While-billed. Diver in Britain
Fig. i. Breeding areas and probable autumn dispersal routes of the White-billed
Diver Gavia adamsii
White-billed Diver in Britain
261
Old World populations (Collett 1894, Palmer 1962, Godfrey 1966).
Evidence for the routes followed is rather sparse and difficult to
obtain, but the general picture seems to be as follows (see fig. 1). The
New World breeding population returns to the coast and is seen to
migrate westwards, then south through the Bering Straits. The
eastern Russian population, extending perhaps as far west as the
Laptev Sea where Dementiev (1951) recorded an apparent break
in the otherwise continuous, if sporadic, distribution across the
Russian tundra (and see also Vaurie 1965), may turn eastwards,
thence through the Bering Straits. Once through the Straits, the
migration routes of these two populations are not known. Wintering
birds have been recorded as far south as Japan in the western
Pacific and off the coast of British Columbia in the east. Although
these two populations would seem to come into contact at times of
migration in the Bering Straits, it may be that they remain discrete,
the Russian birds following the Asian seaboard and the Alaskan
birds following the American coast.
It would seem likely that the population breeding west of the
Laptev Sea migrates westwards to make up the assemblages known
to winter off the Norwegian coast (Collett 1894). Almost certainly,
the British records originate only from these Norwegian gatherings.
Therefore any problems of identification which may be thought to
stem from the theory of conspecificity (or from hybridisation) can
be discounted so far as this population is concerned, as it is drawn
from the ‘purest’ end of the postulated cline.
MOULT AND WINTER PLUMAGE
After leaving the breeding grounds in late September, adult adamsii
undergo a moult into winter plumage. Witherby et al. (1938-41)
stated that in immer the autumn moult of adults is complete and
that, although little information is available, it would seem that this
moult is also complete in adult adamsii. Dementiev (1951) agreed
with this view, but Palmer (1962) stated that only first-summer
birds moult their remiges in autumn. We can cast no light on
this dichotomy of opinion but, because this moult into winter
plumage is completed soon after the birds leave their breeding
quarters, and certainly before the earliest date that a specimen has
been recorded in this country (November), it is not relevant to a
discussion on winter diver identification in Britain. The spring
moult out of winter plumage, however, is highly relevant, because
it is during this period that the adults acquire the black and white
breeding plumage by a complete moult, including remiges and
rectrices. However, only birds in their second spring or older assume
such a plumage; those in their first spring at this time do not moult
their remiges and moult only some of their body feathers, the new
262
White-billed Diver in Britain
feathers being similar to those in winter-plumage adults. They
remain in this ‘winter appearance’ plumage for the next twelve
months before assuming their first black and white adult plumage
in the second spring. Only Dementiev’s account is at variance with
this. He stated that in birds in their second spring or older the pre-
nuptial moult is only partial, involving the body feathers and
not the remiges or rectrices. From the evidence of the British records
this is clearly not the case, as several specimens have been recorded
(all later than December) showing new breeding-plumage feathers
but yet flightless due to the simultaneous shedding of the remiges.
The winter plumage assumed between these two moults is
superficially similar in both immer and adamsii. The underparts
from chin to vent are pure white, and the upperparts from forehead
to tail and including the wings are more or less uniformly dark
brown. The feathers of the upperparts (excluding the head and neck)
of juveniles of both species are broadly tipped with greyish-white,
giving the birds a distinctly scalloped appearance. Thus, five of
the twelve characters which have been considered diagnostic in
breeding plumage are lost, leaving only the colour of the primary
shafts and bill criteria on which to base an identification. Two of the
remaining characters, the shape of the cross-section and the com-
missural line of the upper mandible (the cutting edge or maxillary
tomium), are impossible to apply in the field; and, unfortunately,
the most reliable character in breeding plumage, the colour of the
bill, also undergoes a seasonal change in both species. In adamsii it
darkens slightly at the base, though remaining basically ‘white’.
In immer the black bill of summer becomes much paler and can
assume a superficially ‘whitish’ appearance. In juvenile to second-
winter immer the bill is usually very pale (juveniles always so).
THE IDENTIFICATION PROBLEM
The problem of identification has centred around a reluctance
to identify as adamsii any ‘white-billed’ diver not showing a bill
with the ostensibly classic straight culmen, markedly angled gonys
and large size. Not unnaturally, there has also been the reverse
tendency to identify immer as adamsii mainly on the basis of the pale
bill colour, but especially if this was associated with merely one
(sometimes more) of the other bill characters which might have
approached classic proportions. Both these approaches have led
to erroneous pronouncements in the past and, to a lesser extent,
the practice continues to this day.
Even in the year adamsii was described, the authorities of the
time suggested that the tendency towards paleness of the bill in
immer was an ageing phenomenon and that this character could not
be used reliably to separate the two species (Sclater 1859). In
White-billed. Diver in Britain
263
Norway, adamsii killed in the i86o’s continued to be referred to the
better-known immer 20 years after the former species was described
(Bannerman 1959). In the British literature there are many well-
documented examples of wrong identification, the initial pro-
nouncements being made with such confidence as to give no hint
that the species could present any difficulty at all. Thus Griffith
(1896) wrote of the bird from Hickling Broad in 1872* as follows:
‘the specimen has been carefully compared with others in the
British Museum, and there is no doubt as to its identification’; it
was this same bird that VVitherby (1922) dismissed, almost with
scorn, as ‘an ordinary Great Northern Diver’. Although Ogilvie-
Grant (1908) considered adults ‘fairly easy to distinguish from [G.
immer], even in winter-plumage’, he made that statement in an
article on a supposed adult adamsii shot at Holy Island in January'
1879 and this too was subsequently and correctly rejected by
Witherby (1922) as immer.
Much later, after the shape of the bill had been pronounced
‘the safest character’ (Bannerman 1959), we find an entry in the
Annual Report of the Cornwall Bird-Watching and Preservation
Society for 1965 (35: 70) quoting expert opinion as saying ‘it is
difficult, almost impossible to be certain of a White-billed Diver in
the field. Even the shape and size of the bill and its colour are not
considered decisive factors’. Some observers, however, had certainly
considered shape to be absolutely diagnostic, even to the extent of
overriding all other warning signs. An almost black-billed diver
found dead at Chichester Harbour in the 1950’s was declared adamsii,
with support from the British Museum (Shackleton 1962 and see
pages 292-293). That there remains an immer j adamsii problem
is nowhere better illustrated than in the pages of one of our con-
temporary journals (Parrack 1972) where readers were invited to
identify a very clear colour photograph of a large diver seen in the
outer harbour at Torquay in 1970. In a subsequent issue the editors
published the replies which, as well as hovering around immer or
adamsii, naturally included the inevitable suggestion that it could
have been a hybrid; the final editorial verdict was: ‘Our own
view is that it is a White-billed which should be submitted to the
British Birds Rarities Committee’ (see page 293).
Clearly, confusion has reigned around White-billed Divers,
particularly birds in winter plumage, for over 100 years. It would
seem that a vindication of the reputedly diagnostic characters
depends on demonstrating (a) the invariability in adamsii of straight-
ness of culmen and sharpness of gony's angle (which together are
♦Details of all British records mentioned in the main text are given in the
appendix (pages 283-296).
White-billed. Diver in Britain
264
supposed to confer on the bill its much-quoted upturned or ‘'retrousse'’
appearance), (b) the converse in immer, and (c) the similarity in
the winter bill colour of the two species. Our examination of many
specimens of both species shows that none of these tenets can be
regarded as wholly valid.
EXAMINATION OF PRESERVED SPECIMENS
Birds in breeding plumage
The examination of specimens of undoubted identity in breeding-
plumage ( 1 7 immer and eleven adamsii) has confirmed the overlap of
bill-measurement parameters which has been cursorily recorded in
the literature. This is shown in fig. 2a in which the length of the
culmen is plotted against depth at gonys (as a means of representing
the overall ‘size’) as a single point for each individual. On average,
the bills of immer were indeed smaller than those of adamsii, but
the overlap is such that separation on the grounds of size alone is
clearly not possible except in the cases of the largest or smallest
birds. A more complete presentation of the biometric data is given
on pages 272-276.
The majority of the adamsii specimens had perfectly straight
culmens except for a slight downward curvature beginning 5-15
22
20!
« '
16
a BREEDING
PLUMAGE
• O
• OOOO
• O • O O O
• O
• • •
.® 22
w
S' 20
a
•S 18
b JUV/lst WINTER
O
O O
• •
• «o
<3
22
20'
18
16'
C 1st SUMMER
& WINTER PLUMAGE
• O 00 00 O CD O
• O O O 86
M • • • •
» • • O O O
75 80 85 90 95
Length of exposed culmen (nearest mm)
100 105
Fig. 2. Scatter diagram depicting overall bill size in the Great Northern Diver
Gavia immer (solid circles) and the White-billed Diver G. adamsii (open circles) :
(a) birds in breeding plumage (27 measured) ; (b) juvenile and first-winter
birds (19 measured) ; (c) first-summer birds and those in winter plumage, second
winter or older (35 measured)
White-billed Diver in Britain
265
mm before the tip. Two specimens had slightly convex culmens but
not so markedly convex as the majority of the immer, three of which,
however, did exhibit culmens equally as straight as those of adamsii.
Only five of the adamsii carried any data on sex: all were male
except one and this was one of the two with a curved culmen, the
other having been sexed as a male. Eight of the immer were unsexed,
including two of the three with straight culmens, the third having
been sexed as a male.
Only two immer showed a marked gonys angle (one of these also
had a straight culmen), whereas the majority of adamsii had this
feature more or less well developed. In two unsexed specimens,
however, the angle was only just perceptible, and one bird (a male)
exhibited a perfectly smooth curve from chin to tip, making it
indistinguishable from the majority of immer in this respect. In only
one case (unsexed) did the gonys angle approach the degree of
sharpness that is usually depicted in drawn illustrations of adamsii.
The shape of the cross-section of the bill was essentially different
in the two species. In immer the sides of both upper and lower mandi-
bles were convex and the bill in section showed a more or less distinct
figure-of-eight shape. In adamsii the bill was flattened laterally and in
section was more the shape of a round-ended narrow rectangle,
indented only slightly at the junction of the two mandibles (fig. 3b).
This character was found to be somewhat variable, particularly in
immer , some examples of which showed a tendency to flattening at
the sides. While there was no mistaking the narrow flat bill of a
Fig. 3. Diagram of (a)
maxillary feathering, (b)
cross-section of bill, and
(c) chin feathering and
gonys fusion, characteristic
of the White-billed Diver
Gama adamsii and the Great
Northern Diver G. immer.
Difference in maxillary
feathering is diagnostic,
but for value of cross-
section, chin feathering
and gonys fusion see dis-
cussion on pages 265-267
G. adamsii
c
gonys
266
White-billed Diver in Britain
classic adamsii, it was difficult to distinguish between a slightly
rounded one and a somewhat flattened immer.
As a separating character, therefore, bill size is sufficiently variable
to cause problems; straightness of culmen, shape of cross-section,
and gonys angle, though apparently less variable than size, nonethe-
less do show exceptions from the general rule which would make a
firm identification in winter plumage difficult, especially if the
various exceptions occurred in combination.
The paleness of the primary shafts of adamsii compared with the
dark brown shafts of immer was found to be a consistent and in-
variable difference between the two species. The winter-plumage
specimen of adamsii said to show brown primary shafts (Witherby
1922) is discussed on page 267. Primary-shaft colour, though
common to both winter and breeding plumages, is of little value in
the field unless seen while the bird is stretching on the sea (rather
than flying) at very close range (plate 41).
The material was therefore examined for further consistently
different characters common to both plumages which could be
applied, along with primary-shaft colour, to specimens in non-
breeding plumage. Only if such characters existed did we think
that it would be possible to effect a separation which would not
rely on the variable bill criteria, nor on subjective impressions.
The extent of the feathering on the maxilla (upper mandible) over
the nostril was found to be one such character. In the adamsii it
always extended well beyond the nasal tubercle, a small projection
positioned mid-way along the dorsal periphery of the nostril. In an
extreme case, this feathering almost reached the anterior margin of
the nasal aperture. In the immer specimens the maxillary feathering
never extended beyond the tubercle; it sometimes reached the for-
ward edge but more frequently stopped level with the centre (fig.
3a and plate 43) .
Further examination of the bills of the two species revealed two
other structural differences: the chin feathering between the two
halves of the lower mandible in adamsii almost invariably extended
further and more acutely towards the gonys than in immer ; and the
fusion of the two rami of the lower mandible at the gonys was
always complete in adamsii. This fusion was accentuated by the
greater or lesser development of a bulge at this point, anterior to
which the sheath of the lower mandible (gnathotheca) was fused and
continued smoothly to the tip. In immer there was no developed bulge
and, though fused, the separate origins of the two rami of the gna-
thotheca could be seen continuing towards the tip, a more or less
developed groove separating them. In very few specimens was this
groove too indistinct to be recognised in the absence of comparative
material (fig. 3c).
White-billed. Diver in Britain
267
These last two characters were not considered diagnostic in so
far as, like the bill shape and size characters discussed earlier,
they slightly overlapped. Nonetheless it was felt that they may be
useful, the mandibular fusion in particular, in corroborating the
identity of a specimen.
Birds in non-breeding plumage
Applying the apparently diagnostic characters of primary-shaft
colour and extent of maxillary feathering to juvenile and winter-
plumage specimens of immer / adamsii (53 individuals examined)
divided the series into two groups, between which a further con-
sistent difference could be seen. The group conforming with immer
(28 specimens) without exception showed a brown to dark brown colo-
ration along the culmen ridge, regardless of the overall paleness of
the bill. Even in juvenile birds, which had the palest bills, this dark
culmen ridge was always present and clearly delineated from the
rest of the bill. No bird from the group conforming with adamsii
(25 specimens) showed any trace of this feature. Less clear cut but
nonetheless apparent were the paler sides to the head in the adamsii.
This feature had been described before (Palmer 1962), but the
degree of difference was insufficiently explained to be able to apply
it readily as a field character.
With one exception, all the birds identified in this way as adamsii
had been originally identified as such. The exception was a British
specimen from Tunstall in Yorkshire which had been submitted
for consideration by the Rarities Committee but was withdrawn
by the observer before a decision had been given because indepen-
dent assessment had pronounced the bird immer (Pashby 1963). This
specimen has now been resubmitted and, in the light of the new
evidence, has been accepted by the Rarities Committee as adamsii.
One bird in the immer group had been labelled adamsii. This was
an adult specimen in the British Museum and is the bird credited
with having brown primary shafts by Witherby (1922). It is not a
typical adamsii aberrant only in having dark primary shafts, how-
ever; in addition, it has short maxillary feathering, a culmen length
of 84 mm (which fails to reach the bottom end of the adult adamsii
range), a groove extending some way beyond the fusion at the
gonys, and a darkening of the otherwise pale bill along the culmen.
The origin of the specimen is also suspect, as it bears two labels, one
giving the locality as Japan and the other as North America! It is
therefore not even possible to consider the bird meaningfully as a
possible hybrid. While not a classic example of immer, it does show
more affinity with that species than with adamsii, and most certainly
its existence cannot be used to cast doubt on the validity of primary-
shaft colour as a diagnostic character.
268
White-billed Diver in Britain
The addition of these non-breeding plumage specimens to the
total sample examined (36 adamsii and 45 immer) shows the characters
of bill size, straightness of culmen, angle of gonys and shape of cross-
section to be even more variable than was suggested by the
breeding-plumage specimens alone. This may possibly be a result
of the greater proportion of known females and certainly of younger
birds in the non-breeding sample. The range of overlap of bill
length between the two species was extended by several millimetres
in both directions (see figs. 2b and 2c). As well as further examples
of immer with quite straight Oilmens, there were a number of ju-
venile and adult winter adamsii with curved culmens, some markedly
so, the curvature being not merely restricted to the distal region
of the bill but extending over the entire length (see plates 42 and
44). Several more specimens of adamsii showed that the attenuation
of the lower mandible to form a point with the upper at the tip can
begin at the base of the rami and is by no means restricted to origi-
nating at the gonys. On the other hand, some specimens of immer
exhibited a well-pronounced angle at the gonys, often in combina-
tion with a more or less straight culmen. This forcibly demonstrated
the danger of reliance on shape which is so much stressed in the
literature.
The immature and winter-plumage birds also showed greater
variability than those in breeding plumage with regard to the
mandibular fusion at the gonys and the length of the chin feathering.
Juvenile and first-winter immer, in particular, appeared to show a
greater tendency towards complete fusion of the gnathothecal rami
at the gonys than did breeding-plumage birds (see page 266).
Complete fusion in adamsii, however, was invariable, regardless of
age.
The apparent length of the chin feathering was seen to depend
on the angle at which the rami of the lower mandible attenuated
towards each other. In some specimens of immer this occurred
sharply, some distance posterior to the gonys, thus bringing the rami
close together to run parallel for a variable length before fusing. In
such specimens the chin feathering, though still relatively short,
appeared to be ‘long’ and more or less filled the area between the
rami in a manner more characteristic of adamsii. Only in specimens
of immer whose mandibular rami became confluent gradually and
evenly from the base to the gonys was the chin feathering recognis-
ably short.
With so many alternative characters to consider, we eventually
concluded that the shape of the cutting edge of the upper mandible
was unnecessarily esoteric. There were differences between the two
species in this respect, but in some cases the distinction was either
extremely fine or absent and, in any event, it was difficult to assess.
White-billed Diver in Britain 269
VVe have deliberately excluded this character in the following
discussion.
SUMMARY OF IDENTIFICATION CHARACTERS
Relating the evidence discussed above to published field descrip-
tions, which have the advantage of including behavioural characteri-
stics, it is possible now to assert with some confidence that the separa-
tion of adanisii from immer in winter plumage is not so difficult as was
previously supposed.
In immer, regardless of whether the culmen is straight or the gonys
angled, the bill is normally held horizontally and, although in some
adults and in all juveniles it is very pale and can look quite white in
good light, the culmen ridge is always dark (plate 41). In precise
terms, the whiteness can be described as a very pale cream invested
with an overall cast of bluish-grey. The minimum development of
the dark brown culmen ridge runs from the base to the tip and
extends laterally down the sides of the upper mandible, often reach-
ing the dorsal margin of the nostril; elsewhere, the bill of the
juvenile, including the entire exposed lower mandible, is the bluish-
cream colour described above. In older birds, the development of
the winter bill can lead to a patchy distribution of the dark and pale
areas and in most cases never reaches the extensivelv pale condition
of the juvenile.
In adamsii the generally larger white bill never has a dark culmen
ridge and is habitually held pointing upwards at an angle of about 20
degrees from the horizontal, as in the Red-throated Diver G.
stellata (see plates in Sage 1971). The angle of the gonys and the
straightness of the culmen, the importance of which has tended to be
exaggerated by several authors, are not always pronounced, even
in post-juvenile birds (plate 44), and it is not so much these as the
upward carriage of the head that gives the bill its characteristically
upturned or ‘ retrousse ’ appearance. The bill colour of adamsii has
been variously described as ‘pale horn’, ‘sun-bleached bone’ and
‘ivory white’. VVe would prefer to describe it simply as pale yellowish-
cream which in bright sunlight can appear strikingly white. The
base of the upper mandible, both dorsally and laterally down to
the nostril, and sometimes the extreme base of the lower mandible
shade to a dark horn colour. On the upper mandible this darkening
extends only as far as the region around the anterior margin of the
nostril and never along the length of the ridge as it does in immer.
The obviousness of the distinction between the yellowish cast in
adamsii and the bluish cast in immer depends on the lighting con-
ditions but, in any event, this character is not as important as the
colouring of the culmen in distinguishing the two species.
Adults of both species in winter plumage also show a difference
270
White-billed. Diver in Britain
in the scapular pattern which can be seen at reasonable range in the
field. This blocking effect is a counterpart of the breeding plumage
white spotting and it shows on each scapular feather as two pale
areas, one on each side of the shaft, towards the tip. In adamsii these
are large and prominent but in immer they are much less so, soon
becoming obscure by fading and wear and conferring on the back
a much more uniform appearance (plates 41 and 42). In evaluating
birds in the field, care should be taken to discriminate between this
winter scapular blocking and any summer scapular spotting , as many
birds, even in the early months of the year, are in active moult to
breeding plumage (plates 41 and 43).
Compared with the majority of immer, the sides of the face and
upper neck in adamsii are much paler and in good light can look
very white. Characteristically, though not invariably, the pale sides
of the face extend on to the lower lores (but not as extensively as in
the Red-throated Diver), over the eye and on to the ear-coverts. The
line of demarcation between the dark upperparts and the pale
underparts on the head and neck seems to be much more clearly
defined in immer (see plates 41 and 42 for extremes of these features).
At the base of the neck in adult adamsii, the brown of the upperparts
can extend forwards on the tips of the lower neck feathers to form a
more or less distinct collar (a counterpart of the lower edge of the
breeding-plumage black neck) . This seems not to be developed to the
same degree in immer and rarely forms a complete collar, though
some extension round the sides is evident.
Only two specimens of juvenile/first-winter adamsii have so far
been recorded unequivocally in British waters. From the examina-
tion of these and from non-British specimens, it is clear that the size
and shape of the bill fall far short of classic proportions (plates 42
and 43) and it is very probable that past examples have been
assigned to immer. It seems likely that the classic shape of the bill is
not fully developed until after the first spring moult has taken place
(when the birds are about eight months old) and it may also be that
its maximum development is characteristic only of adult males.
Certainly until the first summer, and perhaps even beyond it, there
can be some variation in bill size, straightness of culmen and angle
of gonys, but never in the colour or general upward carriage, both of
which should be adequate to separate juveniles in the field. Although
the back patterning of juvenile adamsii and immer is similar, the pale
edges to the rounded feathers, which give the back its characteristi-
cally scalloped appearance (plates 41 and 42), are much paler and
broader in adamsii. This character, however, would be of doubtful
value in the field unless the two species were together for direct
comparison.
White-billed Divers are sometimes recorded as a result of being
White-billed Diver in Britain
271
found dead or dying, mainly from oiling, on beaches. The identifica-
tion of such specimens is relatively easy using the field characters
detailed above and can be further confirmed by examination of the
maxillary feathering above the nostril. This character (described in
detail on page 266) appears to be quite diagnostic and is not so
cryptic as it may seem, the differences being at once recognisable
(plate 43). The colour of the primary shafts is another important
and diagnostic character (plate 43). In adamsii these are white or
very pale yellowish-brown, the tip darkening distally for the last
Table 2. The separating characters of the Great Northern Diver Gavia
immer and the White-billed Diver G. adamsii in non-breeding plumages
Character
G. immer
G. adamsii
ALL AGES
culmen colour
brown to dark brown
not differentiated
ridge, regardless of
from rest of bill
paleness (variable)
colour (uniformly
of rest of bill
pale)
head carriage
horizontal, never
habitually held
tilted upwards
upwards
visible primary
dark brown
white to cream or
shaft colour
yellow-brown (except
tip)
colour of cheek
darker
paler, extending further
feathers
up to and around eye
maxilla feathering
never extends beyond
always extends beyond
nasal tubercle
nasal tubercle
cross-section of bill
usually convex-sided
usually flat-sided
JUVENILES
overall colour of
upperparts
darker brown
paler greyish-brown
pale tips to upperpart
feathers
narrower and darker
wider and paler
culmen length
61-82 mm
71-84 mm
FIRST SUMMER AND
OLDER
culmen shape
not invariably convex
not invariably straight
shape at gonys
not invariably smoothly
convex
not invariably angled
gonys fusion
not invariably
incomplete
invariably complete
chin feathering
not invariably short
invariably long
general body size
usually smaller
usually larger
exposed culmen length
69-90 mm
85-100 mm
SECOND— WINTER AND OLDER
scapular blocking
smaller and less distinct
larger and more distinct
272
White-billed, Diver in Britain
10-75 mms depending on the age of the individual; the extreme
lateral margins of the shaft may be brown for a greater distance than
this. In immer the shaft is mid- to dark brown, paling to creamy-white
only on the calamus (not visible in the open wing). As specimens
may be flightless due to the simultaneous loss of the remiges (plate
43), it is not always possible to apply this examination. Almost
invariably, the flat-sided bill, complete gonys fusion and usually
long and acutely pointed chin feathering will serve as confirmatory
characters for adamsii. All the separating characters are summarised
in table 2.
It is important when examining dead specimens, whether cabinet
skins or corpses, to consider the effects of drying after skinning and/
or exposure between death and collection on the bill-colour criteria
discussed above. The bases of both upper and lower mandibles in
cabinet skins start to darken almost immediately after preparation ;
this process is substantially complete after two to three weeks. In
adamsii the lower mandible darkens to brown or even black ventral
to a line drawn between the gape and the gonys in the region where
the sub-thecal tissue overlying the bone is at its thickest. This
darkening also occurs immediately above and below the nasal
aperture, but not along the commissure and only slightly along the
culmen ridge, extending 5-25 mm from the feathers. Just as drying-
does not obscure the diagnostically pale culmen of adamsii , neither
does exposure bleach out the dark culmen ridge of immer. Several
long-dead specimens taken from exposed beach situations still
showed the dark ridge, despite the apparent scaling off of the outer
layer of the sheath; in cross-section, the pigment was seen to extend
throughout the entire thickness of the rhinotheca (sheath of the
upper mandible). Very old museum specimens which have been
subjected to prolonged exposure to direct sunlight can, however,
show signs of fading, and in extreme cases the culmen ridge may-
be barely perceptible.
MEASUREMENTS
It is possible to take a large number of measurements from any one
specimen. Body weight, wing span, lengths of tail, tarsus and wing,
as well as various parameters of the bill, have all appeared in the
literature. The measurements discussed here are all confined to the
bill, as these are of more value than the others for identification
purposes and can more readily be taken from long-preserved
material.
R. Wagstaffe {Brit. Birds , 45 : 424) listed no fewer than twelve
different measurements of the bill taken between a multiplicity of
more or less identifiable points. The Handbook confined itself to
giving one, the distance between the tip of the upper mandible and
White-billed. Diver in Britain
273
the nostril, though in practice this is a relatively inaccurate measure-
ment as the anterior margin of the nostril is difficult to define,
especially in dried material. For the purposes of comparison with
the ranges given in that work, however, the tip-to-nostril measure-
ment is included here.
The object of the measurements analysis was to try to detect
specific differences of bill size between irnmer and adamsii. It was
found that to achieve this it was necessary to evaluate only two
measurements — the length of the culmen and the depth of the bill
at the gonys. Together, these two parameters serve to give an
overall expression of size. The length of exposed culmen was taken
with dividers from the tip of the upper mandible to the junction of
the bill with the forehead feathering, measured to the nearest
whole millimetre. The depth of the bill at the gonys was taken with
sliding or bow calipers and measured to the nearest 0.5 mm.
Although the tip of the upper mandible was broken in a few speci-
mens (seven of the 82 measured), such individuals were not dis-
carded from the analysis. The average overlap of upper and lower
mandibles, calculated from measurements of intact individuals of
the appropriate age group, was added to the observed length taken
to a point level with the tip of the lower mandible. These corrections
were :
G. immer juvenile/first-winter 3 mm (mean 2.9, 9 measured)
first-summer and older 4 mm (mean 3.6, 22 measured)
G. adarnsii juvenile/first-winter 4 mm (mean 3.9, 5 measured)
first-summer and older 6 mm (mean 5.7, 23 measured)
In a further three cases, the break was obviously so close to the
original tip that it was apparent that only about 2 mm had been
lost and this amount was simply added to the observed measure-
ment.
Table 3. Observed ranges of culmen length, and of bill tip to nostril
length, in post-juvenile male and female Great Northern Divers Gavia
immer and White-billed Divers G. adamsii
The numbers in brackets after each range show the mean value and number of
individuals measured
G. immer G. adamsii
Culmen length
Males
72-92 mm (81.3; 10)
90-95 mm (92.0; 4)
Females
73-80 mm (76.4: 7)
86-95 mm (92.2; 9)
Tip to nostril
Males
54-68 mm (61.0; 7)
71-76 nam (73.7; 3)
Females
55-60 mm (58.6; 5)
71-78 mm (74.4; 8)
274
White-billed Diver in Britain
As might be expected from the larger sample size, our observed
ranges of tip-to-nostril measurements extended those given in The
Handbook as follows:
G. immer G. adamsii
Present study 47-69 mm 51-81 mm
The Handbook 53-70 mm 60-80 mm
The Handbook divided its ranges into male and female components
and implied that females are slightly smaller than males. It did
not, however, take age into consideration. The analysis of our
measurements showed that there was no significant difference in
bill length between males and females in any one age category
(table 3), though in immer the means for females were slightly less
than those for males. Differences between age groups were, however,
Table 4. Bill measurements of the Great Northern Diver Gavia immer
(millimetres)
The calculated ranges are statistically representative of 95% of the total population.
•But for the one bird measuring 92 mm, the range here would extend only to
89 mm
Mean and Calculated Observed Number
standard error range ( P = 0.05) range measured
Juvenile/ 1 st winter
Culmen length
71-57 ± 1-30
61-82
63-79
H
Tip to nostril
54.30 ± 1.49
44-65
47-61
10
Depth at gonys
17.36 ± 0.42
I3-5-2I-5
15-20
14
1 st summer and older
Culmen length
79-71 ± 0.94
69-90
72-92*
3'
Tip to nostril
60.65 ± °-97
51-70
52-69
23
Depth at gonys
18.89 ± 0.30
15-5-22.5
15-22
3i
Table 5. Bill measurements of the White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii (milli-
metres)
The calculated ranges are statistically representative of 95% of the total population.
•Sample size too small and variance too great for calculated range to have any
value here
Mean and
standard error
Calculated
range (P = 0.05)
Observed
range
Number
measured
Juvenile/ 1st winter
Culmen length
79.20 ± 2.35
*
71-84
5
Tip to nostril
60.20 ± 2.66
*
51-66
5
Depth at gonys
19.20 ± 0.74
*
17-21
5
1st summer and older
Culmen length
92.45 ± 0.65
85-100
85-102
3i
Tip to nostril
74.07 ± 0.66
67-81
70-81
27
Depth at gonys
20.91 ± 0.19
18.5-23
19-23
32
White-billed. Diver in Britain
275
significant and indicated that it is apparently during the first spring
moult that the bill increases in size to reach adult proportions. For
this reason, the results are grouped into two age categories —
juvenile/first-winter, and first-summer and older. No significant
difference in bill size was found between winter-plumage and
breeding-plumage birds in the latter category.
The results are shown graphically in fig. 2 and given in statistical
form in tables 4 and 5. Our extension of the range beyond that given
in The Handbook well illustrates the limitations of sample size on the
presentation of biometric data merely in terms of observed values.
The tables, therefore, contain a theoretically derived range. This is
calculated by applying the t statistic and standard deviation to the
observed mean at a probability level of P = 0.05 in order to show
the range within which 95% of the total population may be expec-
ted to fall. This holds good even though the actual number of
specimens examined forms a very much smaller percentage of the
population. VVe feel that it is more useful to give a range of measure-
ments which may be transgressed by only one out of every 20 birds
than merely to give the values for a small sample whose limits do not
necessarily relate in any wider context.
The results confirm that, on average, immer has a shorter and
shallower bill than adamsii (table 6). This is most pronounced
in the bill length of those birds that have passed through their first
spring moult. The difference between juvenile and first-winter birds
of the two species is not so marked. All bill-measurement parameters
between the two species show a degree of overlap, particularly in
Table 6. Comparative summary of bill measurements of the Great
Northern Diver Gavia immer and the White-billed Diver G. adamsii (milli-
metres)
The ranges are statistically calculated to be representative of 95% of the total pop-
ulation ; the figure in brackets after each range is the mean of the sample measured,
to the nearest 0.5 mm (the figures marked with an asterisk are the observed and
not the calculated ranges, since the sample sizes here were too small for meaningful
statistical manipulation). The sample sizes are given in tables 4 and 5
G. immer G. adamsii
Gulmen lengdi
Juvenile/ 1st winter
1 st summer and older
Tip to nostril length
Juvenile/ 1 st winter
1 st summer and older
Depth at gonys
Juvenile/ist winter
1st summer and older
61-82 (71.5)
69*9° (79-5^
44-^5 154-5
51-70 (60.5)
I3-5-2I-5 ( 1 7-5)
1 5.5-22.5 (19)
* 7 1 -84 (79)
85-100 (92.5)
*51-66 (60
67-81 (74
*17-21 (19)
18.5-23 (21)
White-billed. Diver in Britain
276
juveniles, and therefore specific identification on the grounds of bill
measurements alone is clearly not possible. However, the ranges of
the culmen lengths of post-juvenile birds overlap by merely 5 mm
(7 mm observed), and only about one in five falls within this over-
lap range. In the majority of cases, therefore, bill measurements will
be of value in confirming the identity of a specimen, provided that
it conforms in the qualitative respects discussed earlier.
SUMMARY OF BRITISH OCCURRENCES
Numbers, distribution and status
From the first record, identified retrospectively, in 1829, we find
that there have been 39 acceptable records of individual White-
billed Divers up to and including that in December 1973. Sixteen
of these were sight records (not subsequently recorded dead), three
were shot by 19th-century collectors, 16 were found dead and four
found dying. We have been able to trace the present location of 20
out of the 23 birds shot, found dead or dying. The other three (Holy
Island, between 1830 and 1832; Whiteness Voe, Shetland, 1946; and
Sandsend, Yorkshire, 1952) were preserved but the specimens are
now lost, though fortunately the 1946 and 1952 birds were ade-
quately documented. Only eight of the 23 specimens were sexed and
all were female.
Fig. 4 shows the distribution of the records around the British
coasts. There are no records for Ireland. With three notable excep-
tions, the distribution is restricted to the east coast and Shetland and,
except for one record over a century ago, these are all north of the
Humber. This distribution is wholly in accord with the theory that
all the British birds are drawn from the population wintering off the
Norwegian coast.
Fig. 5 depicts the temporal distribution of the 37 records for which
the month of first sighting is known. It is clear that the peak periods
for the mainland coast are the months of January and February.
Although there is no significant difference in this respect between
the different regions along this stretch, there have been fewer birds
recorded north of the Firth of Forth, but this may simply be a
reflection of observer activity. The records from north of the Moray
Firth show a striking difference in distribution, the peak period
being much later in May and June. Only one isolated record from
this region, of a bird found at Whiteness Voe in Shetland, occurred
outside this period. The overall picture strongly suggests that, for
whatever reason and by whatever route, birds reach this country
normally between December and February over a range which does
not include the Northern Isles and which stretches only as far south
as the Humber. Shetland seems to get its records by virtue of being
the last landfall for birds moving northwards, making their way
White-billed. Diver in Britain
a 77
Fetlar 1964
White Hill 1950
Whalsay 1969
Weisdale Voe 1947
Whiteness Voe 1946
Levenwick 1952
Fair Isle 1961 & 1971
Loch Torridon 1971
, Loch Fleet 1963
, Avoch Harbour 1959(2)
, Findhorn 1970
, Spey Bay 1955
. Buckie 1972
Aberdeen 1969
Broughty Ferry 1954
Monifieth 1952
Earlsferry 1965
Gullane Point 1970
Oirleton 1952
Aberlady Bay 1955/6 & 1957
Holy Island 1830 & 1832
Budle Bay 1966
Embleton 1829
Sweethope Lough 1966
Sandsend 1952
Whitby 1956
Robin Hood's Bay 1966
Scarborough 1916 & 1952
Filey 1969
Hornsea 1973
Tunstall 1962
Hedon Haven 1953
Maraiion 1967
Fig. 4. Geographical distribution of British records of the White-billed Diver
Gavia adamsii (1829 to 1973)
278
White-billed Diver in Britain
North ol Moray Firth
B
B
B
B
B
B
Firth of Tay to Moray Firth
R. Humber to Firth of Forth
South of R. Humber
OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUl
Month of first sighting
Fig. 5. Distribution of British records
of the White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii
(1829 to 1973) with respect to month
of first sighting (unknown for two of
the 39 records). Shaded bars denote
Shetland records; b indicates breed-
ing plumage
back to the breeding grounds (or summering areas, in the case of non-
breeders), having completed their moult further south. Given this
explanation, it is not surprising, as Bannerman (1959) suggested it
was, that there are no records from the Faeroes. Although the lack of
winter records in Shetland could be attributed to reduced observer
activity in those months, it is significant that intense watching on the
east coasts of mainland Scotland and northern England during
April, May and June has yet to produce a record of adamsii in May
or June and has turned up only one breeding-plumage bird in April
(Sweethope Lough, Northumberland, 1966). In these same areas,
less intense watching in the earlier months (December to March)
has accounted for 50% of the British records, and so the absence in
spring seems to be real.
Because all but six of the records have occurred within the last 25
years, the status of adamsii in Britain may now be more accurately
described as that of a rare winter visitor and not a vagrant, as it has
been labelled in the past. The pattern of the records now suggests
that there is a regular movement across the North Sea, but appar-
ently not involving large numbers of birds. As divers are not
oceanic but generally winter within, say, 10 km of the coast, and as
there are no significant currents across the North Sea which would
drift birds in the direction of Britain, this crossing seems to be an
White-billed. Diver in Britain
279
active passage. We know that there is a small regular passage round
south-west Norway into the Skagerrak (Swales 1954), and it could
be that a small proportion of the birds migrating in this area continue
in a south-westerly direction. Reputedly, the females in some
species are the stronger migrants (Dorst 1962), and it is a surprising
fact that all the British records to have been sexed were females.
That this could be coincidence is statistically highly improbable
(P < 0.01), assuming that no abortive attempt was made to sex any
of the other specimens. It is interesting to speculate that this may
help to explain the seemingly unnecessary North Sea crossing.
According to Dementiev (1951), White-billed Divers form a perma-
nent pair bond; but this is not necessarily maintained during the
winter (Sage 1971) and it may be that the different sexes have more
or less separate wintering areas, the females probably travelling
further south than the males.
Spring moult in Britain
1. Secpience. From the examination of specimens and detailed
held notes covering several months from November to April, it is
possible to describe the sequence of the spring moult into breeding
plumage as follows.
Moulting begins with the lesser and greater wing-coverts (starting
with the former), and birds can be seen in complete winter plumage
apart from heavy spotting in these regions only. After the onset of
this covert moult, traces of breeding plumage also appear, especially
on the rump but also on the mid- and upper back, beginning always
on the sides near the shoulders. Progress of the moult in these latter
areas is slow until the covert moult is almost complete. By that time
the main region of the scapulars may have started (plate 43). In
one specimen (Cumbrae, 1973) the two central tail-feathers were
being renewed at this stage, but no other tail-moult information is
available. Although there is no change in appearance, the feathers
in the breast and belly regions begin to be replaced some time after
the onset of the covert moult but before its completion (evident
from the state of the skin seen while skinning several specimens).
Before the birds lose their predominantly winter appearance, the
primaries, together with their coverts, and the secondaries are shed
more or less simultaneously over a period of perhaps only a few days
(plate 43), apparently starting from the outside of the wing (Scar-
borough, 1952 — loth and gth primaries missing in each wing;
Hedon Haven, 1953 — 10th to 7th missing in each wing). Then
begins a period of flightlessness during which the moult of the con-
tour feathers begins to accelerate. Moulting on the head and neck
begins at this time, but unfortunately the sequence represented by
the British specimens (at least those which seem to be moulting
28o
White-billed. Diver in Britain
normally) is broken here and the next examples are of birds in
complete, or almost complete, breeding plumage. Only one bird
(Whalsay, 1969) is described as being in full breeding dress except
for the neck which remained white below. It therefore seems that
the development of the neck collar and bands is the last phase
of the moult though, exceptionally, a specimen found at Aberlady
Bay in 1957 was showing fairly heavy lower neck moult while still
carrying a complete set of old primaries.
In the bird found at Cumbrae in January 1973, the wing-covert
moult was in a fairly advanced stage, but mixed with the remaining
winter-plumage greater coverts were a few abraded summer-
plumage feathers from the previous year, a feature also observed in
one of the immer we examined (Islay, February 1964). Some breed-
ing-plumage feathers may therefore be retained after the autumn
moult, and birds sighted early in the year which show signs of white
spotting should not be assumed to be embarking on their spring
moult. These retained feathers, however, are very much abraded,
especially the white spots which appear as though they have been
eaten away, leaving holes in the ends of the feathers. The description
of the sighting at Aberlady Bay in November 1955 (Hamilton and
Hogarth 1956) records a bird which was, in all probability, in this
condition. Incidentally, the moult stage of a sighting later in the
season at the same locality (Hamilton and Hogarth 1957) gives no
cause to doubt that it was the same bird.
Q. Duration and timing. The timing of the moult is variable
between individuals. Apparently normal birds can be found in
early stages of wing-covert moult from mid-December to late Feb-
ruary. Birds which are losing, lacking or starting to renew their
remiges have been recorded from the end of January to the end of
March. The acquisition of new remiges, at least in normal indivi-
duals, seems to be complete by early April. Birds in full breeding
plumage have been recorded from late April, and no ‘normal’ bird
after the middle of May has shown any signs of winter plumage.
It is pertinent to point out here that from March onwards post-
juvenile birds showing no signs of breeding plumage will, in all
probability, be in their first summer, and it is to this group only
that the term ‘immature’ should be applied. There are several
instances in the literature and in unpublished field notes where
indiscriminate use of the term has made the assessment of the record
extremely difficult, While it is probable that second-summer birds,
though in breeding plumage, do not breed, we feel that for the
purpose of field observation the age definitions should be: (a)
juvenile (showing ‘scalloped’ backs) up to the spring in the year
following hatching; (b) immature from spring to late summer in the
1 1 'kite-billed Diver in Britain
281
year following hatching; and (c) adult from the second winter
onwards.
Because the moult seems not to be synchronised throughout the
population, combining the individual records does not enable the
duration of any of the stages to be assessed. Some moulting indivi-
duals have been observed over long periods, but in nearly all cases
the observers considered that the birds were behaving in a way
which suggested that they were sick (in most cases probably from
oiling). This would almost certainly have affected the normal
progress of the moult. Such a bird seen at Buckie in 1972 was
watched for over two months and, although the primaries were
said to have started regrowing at the onset of this period (mid-
March), they were still not fully grown at the end (plate 41).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank all the many people who have assisted us during the
preparation of this paper. Dr W. R. P. Bourne, D. G. Burleigh (Hancock Museum,
Newcastle upon Tyne), J. Goldsmith (Norwich Castle Museum), A. T. Mac-
millan, P. J. Morgan (Liverpool Museums), F. R. Smith and D. I. M. Wallace
all gave up a great deal of their time on our behalf and to them we are most
grateful. We also thank the following people who donated, lent or arranged access
to preserved or photographic material: R. H. Appleby, C. J. Bibby, T. Nl. Clegg
(Dundee Museum), G. S. Cowles (British Museum, Natural History). R. H. Dennis,
C. E. Douglas, Dr C. .J. Feare, D. W. Greenslade, J. Hull (Oxford Museum),
B. Latham (Hull Museum), I. H. J. Lyster (Royal Scottish Museum), D. B.
McGinn, R. K. Macgregor, C. I. Massey (Scarborough Museum), C. E. Palmar
(Glasgow Museum), C. Simms (Yorkshire Museum), A. M. Taylor, A. B. Walker
(Whitby Museum) and A. J. Wallis. The following people provided much help
and useful information relating to British records: Dr J. A. Bogan. H. F. Brazenor
(Booth Bird Museum, Brighton), J. Cudvvorth. G. Demar. B. Fewstcr, DrJ. J. D.
Greenwood, F. D. Hamilton, R. G. Hawley, R. Hudson. J. Metcalfe (Leicester
Museum), J. L. F. Parslow, B. S. Pashby, R. D. Penhallurick (Truro Museum),
Dr C. M. Perrins, Dr B. B. Rae, L. S. V’. Venables and Mr and Mrs G. Waterston.
Finally, our thanks are due to P. Hope Jones who read the first draft of the
manuscript, to G. V. Adkin for assistance with some of the photographs, and to
I. J. Ferguson-Lees for his long-standing patience and encouragement.
S U M M A R V
The problems of separating both live and dead examples of the Great Northern
Diver Gavia immer and the White-billed Diver G. adamsii, and the difficulties attri-
buted to such separation in the past, are discussed and identification criteria
listed. Present knowledge of the breeding distribution and range is summarised
and the post-breeding dispersal of adamsii postulated. Spring moult is discussed in
some detail and the winter plumages described. G. adamsii undergoes a post-
breeding moult which is complete before any individual reaches British waters,
usually in December. The characters of bill shape and size, the most favoured
criteria for identification purposes up to the present time, are shown to be much
less useful than was supposed, and several new and more reliable characters are
given.
Over 80 examples of the two species were examined firstly to establish valid
structural differences in summer-plumage birds which could then be related to the
282
White-billed Diver in Britain
winter-plumage and sub-adult specimens. The main part of the paper deals with
these characters and their relative importance, both in the field and in the hand.
Measurements are given for both species and these confirm that adamsii has the
larger bill, but there is a measure of overlap.
The occurrence of adamsii in British waters is discussed in detail. The evidence
indicates that winter records are most likely to occur in north-east England and
south-east Scotland by virtue of the continuation of a south-westerly migration
along the Norwegian coast, thence across the North Sea to Yorkshire northwards.
Records in northern Scotland and Shetland occur chiefly in May and June when
the return to the summer quarters is under way. The present status of ‘vagrant’
seems now to be invalid and it is suggested that ‘rare winter visitor’ is more correct.
REFERENCES
Bailey, A. M. 1948. Birds of Arctic Alaska. Colorado Museum of Natural History.
Bannerman, D. A. 1959. The Birds of the British Isles. Edinburgh and London,
vol 8.
Collett, R. 1894. ‘On the occurrence of Colymbus adamsii in Noway’. Ibis,
ser 6, 6: 269-283.
Dementiev, G. P. 1951. In Plitsy Sovetskogo Soyuza (Birds of the Soviet Union),
edited by G. P. Dementiev and N. A. Gladkov. Moscow, vol 2. (Translated
edition by Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1966-68.)
Dorst, J. 1962. The Migrations of Birds. London, Melbourne and Toronto.
Godfrey, W. E. 1966. The Birds of Canada. Ottawa.
Gray, G. R. 1859. ‘Description of a new species of diver (Colymbus)’ . Proc. zool.
Soc., 27: 167.
Griffith, A. F. 1896. ‘On the occurrence of the White-billed Northern Diver,
Colymbus adamsii, in Norfolk’. Zoologist, ser 3, 20: 14-16.
Hamilton, F. D., and Hogarth, K. C. 1956. ‘White-billed Diver in East Lothian’.
Scot. Nat., 68: 57-58.
!957- ‘White-billed Diver in East Lothian’. Scot. Nat., 69: 61.
Irving, L. i960. Birds of Anaktuvuk Pass, Kobuk and Old Crow: a Study in Arctic
Adaptation. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., no. 217.
Ogilvie-Grant, W. R. 1908. ‘Notes on the plumage of a Great Northern Diver
and a White-billed Northern Diver’. Brit. Birds, 1 : 294-295 (see also Brit. Birds,
5= U4)-
Palmer, R. S. 1962. Handbook of North American Birds. New Haven, vol 1.
P arrack, J. 1972. ‘Diver identification’. World of Birds, 1(8): 12-15; see also
Birds, 2(1): 29.
Pashby, B. S. 1963. ‘Aberrant specimen of Great Northern Diver’. Naturalist,
no. 884: 30.
Sage, B. L. 1971. ‘A study of White-billed Divers in arctic Alaska’. Brit. Birds,
64: 519-528, plates Ilia, 81-84.
Sclater, P. L. 1859. ‘Remarks on exhibiting specimens of two species of divers
( Colymbus ) from Mr Gurney’s collection’. Proc. zool. Soc., 27: 206-207.
Seebohm, H. 1885. ‘On the occurrence of the White-billed Diver, Colymbus adamsii,
on the British coasts’. ser 3, 9: 144- 145.
Shackleton, K. 1962. ‘Avery rare bird’. The Field, 4th October 1962.
Snyder, L. L. 1957. Arctic Birds of Canada. University of Toronto.
Swales, M. K. 1954. ‘Ornithological observations from Lista 1953’. Sterna, 1 ( 14) :
'-34-
Vaurie, C. 1965. The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna: Non-Passeriformes. London.
Voous, K. H. i960. Allas of European Birds. London.
Witherby, H. F. 1922. ‘On the White-billed Northern Diver as a British bird’.
Brit. Birds, 16: 9-12.
et al. 1938-41. The Handbook of British Birds. London, vol 4.
Plate 41. Above, juvenile/first-winter Great Northern Divers Gavia i turner \ the
dark culmcn ridge on the otherwise pale bill shows up dearly on both; note Un-
sharp demarcation between the dark upperparts and pale underparts on the head
and neck; the scalloped appearance of the back and wing-coverts shows clearly
but is not so pronounced as in White-billed Divers (>. adamsii of the same age
(J. II. and S. Bottom lev; inset: G. V. Adkin). Below, White-billed Diver, Buckie,
Banffshire, 14th March to goth May i <>7.2 (photographed about 25th April : note
the absence of a dark culmen, the pale sides to the head, and the white priman
shafts; die winter-plumage blocking on the scapulars shows particularly well;
the spring moult is almost complete on the wing-coverts and the new primaries arc
growing, otherwise the bird is in winter plumage (D. B. McGinn < (pages 257-296
Plate 42. Above, back feathering of adult Great Northern Diver Gavia immer,
Islay, Argyll, 13th February 1964 (left), of adult White-billed Diver G. adamsii,
Hedon Haven, Yorkshire, 18th February 1953 (centre), and of juvenile/first-
winter White-billed Diver, Hornsea, Yorkshire, 8th December 1973 (right): the
moult to breeding plumage in the two adult birds is almost complete on the
wing-coverts, and new feathers are appearing on the mantle and upper scapulars.
Note the relative prominence of the winter-plumage scapular blocking in the
centre photograph; the scalloped juvenile plumage of adamsii is seen to be more
pronounced than in immer (G. V. Adkin). Below, juvenile/ first-winter White-billed,
St Paul Island, Alaska, 17th December i960: the length (76 mm) and marked
curvature of the culmen and the absence of gonys angle are all typical of immer,
but the lack of a dark culmen ridge and the extensively pale cheeks (at the
extreme of development here) are diagnostic of adamsii ( City of Liverpool Museums)
Plate 43. Above left, 7th primary from an adult White-billed Diver Gavia adam-
sii (left), showing the white shaft, compared with a dark-shafted primary from
an adult Great Northern G. immer. Above right, iinrner maxillary feathering (above
extending only as far as the front edge of the nasal tubercle, compared with the
much longer maxillary feathering of adamsii (D. M. Burn . Below left, juvenile
first-winter White-billed, Gullane Point, East Lothian, 1 6 1 1 1 January 1970: note
the small bill, resembling immer in shape but lacking the dark culmen ridge, and
the prominent white primary shafts (G. V. Adkins. Below right, adult White-billed
in active spring moult, Filey, Yorkshire, 1st March 1969: the remiges are com-
pletely missing, breeding-plumage feathers are appearing on the sc apulars, back
and rump, and the winter wing-coverts are almost entirely replaced /). M. Burn
Plate 44. Two adult White-billed Divers Gavia adamsii. Above, Scarborough,
Yorkshire, 30th January 1952, showing a near-classic bill shape — deep and flat-
sided, the culmen straight and the gonys angle fairly well pronounced. Below,
Hedon Haven, Yorkshire, 18th February 1953: while the gonys angle is as pro-
nounced as in the bird above, the culmen is as curved as in most immer ( D . M. Burn)
Appendix. Review of the British records
INTRODUCTION
The first critical review of the records of the White-billed Diver was
published by Witherby in 1922. He used as his basis the second
edition of Saunders (1899), most of the errors in which had been
repeated in the Hand-list (Hartert et al. 1912). The corrected list of
accepted records, as well as those rejected and regarded as uncertain,
was published by Witherby in the Practical Handbook (1924) and
appeared again, unchanged, in The Handbook (1940). W. E. Clarke
gave the same information in his revision ofSaunders’ Manual (1927).
No further review appeared until Bannerman (1959), by which
time the records had risen from two to almost 20. Since then the
list has nearly doubled in length but no revision of the record book
has been published.
We have evaluated critically every published and unpublished
record claimed at any time as adamsii that we have been able to
locate, up to the end of 1973. We have also personally examined
21 out of the 25 traceable specimens and have received details
(taken under our direction) of a further three. All those records
that we find adequately substantiated (39 individuals) are listed
on pages 285-289. These are followed on pages 290-293 by those
records which we do not feel should be included in the definitive
British list. In some cases we have rejected records because we
maintain that the birds were Great Northern Divers wrongly identi-
fied as White-billed either by the original observers or subsequently
by others; all such records are supported by specimens or adequate
photographs. In other cases we can say only that the record is in-
sufficiently substantiated: this does not imply that the observers
necessarily made a wrong identification but that, in view of the
confusion which has clouded objective identification in the past,
the details which are available are inadequate to distinguish between
the two species.
The British Birds Rarities Committee exercises jurisdiction only
over records from 1958 onwards. Records previously published as
accepted in its annual reports are marked in the list below with a
dagger (|). Post- 1958 accepted records not marked in this way are
included here with the full approval of the Rarities Committee and
will be listed as accepted in its next ‘Report on rare birds’. The
committee is also in agreement with our decisions on all the post-
1958 records which appear in the ‘insufficiently substantiated’ and
‘wrongly identified’ lists on pages 290-293.
The references in the literature in which the various records have
been published are listed separately at the end of this appendix.
283
White-billed Diver in Britain
284
Newspaper reports are not included. Each reference is numbered
and the details of each record include a list of the appropriate
reference numbers. The number of the main reference for any record
the one giving the most descriptive detail — is printed in bold
type. Not all the records have received detailed treatment and in
such cases no bold number is given. For completeness we have
included every reference we have been able to find in which a
record is mentioned, however cursorily. This is for three main
reasons. Firstly, some entries in the literature cannot readily be
ascribed to specific records: in three cases, for example, only photo-
graphs were published, with no details of date or locality. We feel
it important to indicate that the review is complete to the extent of
including such records. Secondly, several records have been
described as, for example, the ‘twelfth’ or the ‘nineteenth’ for Britain,
or an approximation to the number has been given. In most cases
the count is inaccurate, and for the benefit of future workers we
seek to clarify the confusion by demonstrating the equivalence in
our own list. Finally, a record may appear as adamsii in one reference
and as immer in another; equating these is often difficult unless all
are viewed together, but a more serious drawback is the risk of
arriving at the wrong conclusion if any one reference of such a
record is consulted in isolation.
The format of each entry in the lists is given below. In some cases,
individual details may be either unknown or inappropriate to the
record and may therefore be omitted.
Date Locality, county; age, sex, predominant plumage (juvenile/immaturc/
winter/breeding); exposed culmen length; sight record/found dead
or dying/shot (observers’/finders’/collectors’ initials); preserved
form — location and reference number of specimen (cross-reference
to plate).
Notes.
List of numbers of references on pages 293-296.
Culmen lengths given in parentheses are from birds whose upper
mandible is broken at the tip. The measurement given is from the
edge of the forehead feathers to a point level with the tip of the
lower mandible. The addition of the mean overlap (see page 273)
to this figure will give a near approximation to the original length
of the culmen, before the break occurred.
accepted records (39 individuals)
An asterisk (*) against the date indicates that we have personally
examined the specimen, a dagger (t) that the record has been
published by the Rarities Committee among the lists of accepted
records in its annual reports (see references 41, 58, 71, 72, 73, 75).
White-billed Diver in Britain '^05
December
1829
Emblcton, Northumberland; adult, winter plumage; 102 mm; shot;
mount — Hancock Museum, Newcastle upon Tyne, no number,
refs: 4, 8. 13, 14, 29, 35, 42. 43. 63, 64. 68. 74. 80. 82. 83. 85, 86. 87
During
1830-32
Holy Island, Northumberland; adult, breeding plumage; shot
(B, JS); presumably a mount but specimen now untraceable.
This record was overlooked by all previous reviewers. It appears
only once in the literature (Bolam 1912). It was shot by Bolam’s
grandfather who described it as having an ivory white bill. This was
spontaneously confirmed to Bolam 70 years later by the boatman
who ferried the grandfather on the day the bird was shot. The
combination of breeding plumage and the white bill is sufficient to
validate the record,
ref: 8
Spring 1852 Pakeficld, Suffolk; adult, winter plumage; shot per AS); mount —
Castle Museum, Norwich, no. 15.935(58).
29th Febru-
The plate in Babington (1886) is not of this bird, as Harting 11901
claimed, but depicts the prr-1886 Suffolk specimen rejected as
immer (sec page 292).
refs: 3, 4, 36, 42. 43, 55, 63, 64, 65, 68. 74. 77, 80. 82. 83, 85, 86. 87.
89
Scarborough, Yorkshire: adult, winter plumage; sight record (WJG .
ary to and refs: 4, 13. 16, 81, 82
March 1 9 1 G
2 1 St
January
1946
Whiteness Yoe, Shetland; adult, winter plumage; 96 mm; found
dead (LSVY, UMV, BWT); skull and rhamphotheca — speci-
men now lost.
refs: 4, 18, 66, 78, 79, 80, 82. 83
8th June
1947
Wcisdale Yoe, Shetland; adult, breeding plumage; sight record
(LSVV. UMV).
refs: 4, 18, 66. 78, 79. 82, 83
Early May
>950
White Hill. Yell, Shetland: adult, breeding plumage; sight record
(WS per LSVV).
Though listed merely as an adult, this bird is known to have been
in full breeding plumage. WS, first officer of the Earl of Zetland, saw
the bird from the boat. Subsequently, his report to LSVV was some-
thing like: ‘I’ve just seen a mast unusual immer-goose — it had a
massive white bill stuck up into the air’ (LSVV verbally :,
refs: 4. 79
*30th
January
'952
Scarborough. Yorkshire; adult, winter plumage; (93 mm); found
dead (ES. AJW); skinned head — John R. Mather Collection, no.
XU 4 (plate 44).
refs: 4, 13, 18, 81. 82
10th
February
'952
Sandsend, Yorkshire: adult 'f, winter plumage; 92 mm; found
dying (AH, ABW. RMG) ; study skin — at one time in Whitby
Museum but now lost (see over).
286
White-billed. Diver in Britain
A short report in the Whitby Gazette, 14th March 1952, indicates
that the skin of this record was confirmed by the British Museum as
adamsii. Although the report goes on to say that the specimen would
be housed in Whitby Museum, it cannot now be found in the collec-
tion and is presumed lost (ABW in litt.). See also the discussion of
the Whitby 1956 accepted record (page 287). In the circumstances,
it is extremely fortunate that full details of this bird were published
at the time.
refs: 4, 13, 14, 18, 76, 82
*24th
February
1952
Monifieth, Angus; adult, winter plumage; 96 mm; found dead
(GBC) ; skull and rhamphotheca, both wings and one foot— Dundee
Museum, no. 1971-284.
refs: 4, 18, 21, 66. 82
24th
February
>952
Dirleton, East Lothian; adult, winter plumage; sight record (RGT).
refs: 4, 18, 66, 82
8th June
>952
Levenwick, Shetland; ‘adult’; sight record (TH et at. per LSVV).
No details beyond those given here have ever been published but it
would have been impossible to have claimed this record as an adult
White-billed Diver in June unless it had been showing an all-white
bill. By that date an ‘adult’ Great Northern Diver (we take it that
the observer is implying that the bird was in breeding plumage)
would have assumed fully its black bill and we feel that no informed
observer would then entertain thoughts of adamsii. Given that this
argument is valid, the record is acceptable,
refs: 4, 18, 79, 82
* 18th
February
>953
Hedon Haven, Pauli, Yorkshire; adult, winter plumage; 93 mm;
found dying (KF et at., GHA) ; study skin — John R. Mather Collec-
tion, no. XU 3 (plates 42 and 44).
refs: 4, 30
2 1 st Janu- Broughty Ferry Castle, Angus; presumably adult, winter plumage;
ary, 4th and sight record (ACr, GBC, LF, HGW, JG).
28th tebru- refs: ^ 2i, 2,$, 37
a<T >954
*2nd
J anuary
>955
Spey Bay, Morayshire ; ‘probably not first winter’ winter plumage ;
86 mm; found dead (AMR, AA, AW, IG) ; skull and rhamphotheca
— Aberdeen University Zoology Department Collection, no.
■955-4-I-
This record was overlooked by Bannerman (1939). No details of its
plumage are given in the published description (only that the
primaries had ‘whitish’ shafts). Although the culmen length is
probably within both the juvenile and the adult ranges, the bill has
a worn and chipped look characteristic of older birds. The ten-
tative age description that was published should therefore be taken
to mean ‘second winter or older’,
refs: 5, 57, 66
White-billed Diver in Britain 287
1 2th to 17th Aberlady Bay and Gosford Bay, East Lothian; adult, winter plu-
November mage; sight record (FDH, KCH el at.).
*955> and Whether the two phases of sightings were of different birds will
19th Febru- always be a matter for conjecture, but there is nothing in the difference
ary to 29th ;n descriptions which is inconsistent with their referring to the same
April 1956 bird at two moult stages and we recommend that they be officially
regarded as such,
refs: 4. 37, 38, 39
♦17th Whitby, Yorkshire; adult, winter plumage; 90 mm; found dying
March 1956 ( per ABW); mount — Whitby Museum, no number.
The Whitby Museum houses one mounted specimen of a White-
billed Diver. This is known to be one of the two examples found
locally (ABW in lilt.), though it bears no data and is not catalogued.
The appearance and measurements of its bill do not correspond
with the details published in ref. 82 of the Sandsend 1952 bird (pages
285-286) which, in any case, was said to have been preserved asaskin.
not a mount. Bryan Fewster (verbally) recalls that the mount was
returned to Whitby Museum in about i960, having been sent for
preservation to the Hancock Museum. The evidence seems clear
enough to justify relating this mounted specimen to the 1956 record
and we must conclude that the Sandsend 1952 bird has been lost.
The extreme tip of the upper mandible of this specimen was broken
in life and the break is worn smooth. Nonethdess, it projects 5.5 mm
beyond the lower. Because of this, and because of the rate at which
it is approaching a point, probably only 2 mm are missing. This
amount has been added to the measured length to give the 90 mm
listed above,
ref: 90
*1316 Aberlady Bay, East Lothian; adult ?, winter plumage; 93 mm;
January found dead (FDH, KSM); study skin— Royal Scottish Museum.
1957 Edinburgh, no. 1957/27.
Published only in the Edinburgh Bird Bulletin, where it is mentioned
only casually, this record was not included in the Bannerman review,
ref: 40
f4th to 8th Avoch Harbour. Ross-shire; adult, winter plumage: sight record
February (JL).
■959 refs: 4, 1 1. 45, 57, 58. 62
+4thtoiith Avoch Harbour, Ross-shire; presumably adult, winter plumage;
February sight record (JL. JM, MR, AA).
■959 This bird was first seen on the same occasion as the one listed imme-
diately above but apparently was not in company with it. The
description says merely that the brown back showed ‘some ir-
regularity of tint’. We feel that the scalloped back of a juvenile/
first-winter bird would have struck the observer more forcibly and
therefore we conclude that he was describing the appearance of the
scapular blocking of a bird in at least its second winter. This and the
288
White-billed Diver in Britain
previous bird are the last records to be included in Bannerman’s
review.
refs: 4, 11, 45, 57, 58, 62
f 14th Alay Fair Isle, Shetland; adult, breeding plumage; sight record (GJB,
1961 PD et at.).
refs: 12. 22, 23, 24. 25, 75
* 1 8th Tunstall, Yorkshire; adult 9> winter plumage; 92 mm; found dead
March 1962 (BSP, AHRi ; study skin — Hull Museum, no. 16/63/3 (see PaSe 267).
refs: 54, 91
* f 7th April Loch Fleet, Golspie, Sutherland; adult, winter plumage; 96 mm;
found dead (IDP); dried head — temporarily in John R. Mather
Collection,
refs: 2, 41, 57
Fetlar, Shetland; first summer, immature plumage; sight record
(LR).
Rejected by the Rarities Committee when first submitted, this
record has been re-appraised in the light of the latest evidence and
is now considered acceptable.
(no published references)
Earlsferry, Fife; adult, winter plumage; 96 mm; found dead (RSYV,
GW et at.); skinned head— Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh,
no. 1969/10.
(no published references)
Robin Hood’s Bay, Yorkshire; adult $, winter plumage; 93 mm;
found dying (CJF per JRM) ; study skin — John R. Mather Collec-
tion, no. XU 1 .
ref: 92
i963
6th June
1964
* 1 st
January
<965
* 15th
February
1966
♦24th April Budle Bay, Northumberland; adult, winter plumage; 92 mm; found
1966 dead (CED) ; skull and rhamphotheca — C. E. Douglas, 25 Brierdene
Road, Whitley Bay, Northumberland,
ref: 6
1 26th April Sweethope Lough, Northumberland; adult $, breeding plumage;
1966 95 mm; found dead (FMW per AMTy) ; study skin — Hancock
Museum, Newcastle upon Tyne, no. 67/1966.
refs: 6, 10, 71
f 10th to 26th Marazion, Cornwall; adult, winter plumage; sight record (RF.
April 1967 JEB, PMK et at.).
This is the most geographically anomalous of all the British records.
It was considered to be a sick bird (JEB in litt.), which doubtless
explains its apparent disorientation. It is significant that it was
recorded very late in the season, yet its progression into breeding
plumage was very slight,
refs: 10, 56, 72
White-billed. Diver in Britain 28<)
*tst March
1969
Filey, Yorkshire; adult v> winter plumage; (84 mm); found dead
(RHA per JRM); study skin — John R. Mather Collection, no.
XU 2; part skeleton — British Museum (Nat. Hist. . Tring, no,
S/ 1 969.1. 1 (plate 43).
(no published references)
*24111
Aberdeen; adult, winter plumage; yo mm; found dead (BBR, JJD(.
March per DN1B) ; deep-frozen corpse — British Museum (Nat. Hist
'969
Tring, no number,
refs: 26, 47, 60
4th to 7th
Whalsav, Shetland: adult, breeding plumage; sight record (\VA,
May 1969 JHS).
refs: 26, 47
* 16th Jan-
uary 1970
Gullane Point, East Lothian; first winter, juvenile plumage; 71 mm;
found dead (RKM); skull, rhamphotheca and left wing— R. K.
Macgregor, 47 Morningside Drive, Edinburgh, no number (plate
43)-
The first British record of a bird in juvenile plumage. In both size
and shape the bill is almost indistinguishable from that of a typical
juvenile immer but the diagnostic characters clearly point to adamsii.
(no published references)
* ist Feb-
ruary 1970
Findhorn, Morayshire; adult, winter plumage; 91 mm; found dead
(BE); skinned head (skull complete) and right wing- — temporarily
in Liverpool Museum,
ref: 26
29th May
'97'
Fair Isle, Shetland; adult, breeding plumage; sight record JHS .
ref: 27
6th to 22nd Upper Loch Torridon, Ross-shirc; adult, breeding plumage: sight
June 1971
record (JAW, PJT. RHD et at.).
This is the latest of the June records, none of the other three birds
having been recorded after 8th June,
refs: 27, 48
4th March Buckie, Banffshire; adult, winter plumage: sight record DBM
to 20th
May 1972
RHD, Rl.e et at.) (plate 41).
ref: 28
*2718 Jan-
uary 1973
Great Cumbrae, Buteshire; adult winter plumage; 96 mm; found
dead (shot) (SJG per CJB); study skin — temporarily in John R.
Mather Collection,
ref: 7
*8th
December
'973
Hornsea, Yorkshire; first winter, juvenile plumage; 83 mm; found
dead (RRL. DTI per AMTa) ; study skin — John R.. Mather Collec-
tion, no. XU5 (plate 42).
The second British record of a bird in juvenile plumage,
ref: 15
2 90
White-billed Diver in Britain
INSUFFICIENTLY SUBSTANTIATED RE C O R D S (24 individuals)
(r) beneath certain dates denotes that the record was submitted to,
but rejected by, the Rarities Committee up to the date of publication
of its last annual report.
December
1883
River Orwell, Suffolk; age and plumage unknown; shot; presumably
a mount — at one time in the Babington Collection but now lost,
refs: 3, 55, 77, 85
Winter
1895/96
Emsworth Harbour, Hampshire; age and plumage unknown;
shot; presumably a mount — at one time in the possession of the Rev.
Canon S. G. Scott, Havant, but now lost,
refs: 17, 42. 44, 63, 64, 85, 86, 87
January
'897
Filey Brigg, Yorkshire; age unknown, winter plumage; shot (seen
byJC); specimen untraceable.
Regarded by Witherby as ‘uncertain’, this record was defended by
Chislett (1952) on the grounds that ‘John Cordeaux was an excellent
naturalist and a careful recorder’. Bannerman (1959) accepted this
defence. There have been many ‘excellent naturalists’, both in
Cordeaux’ time and since, who have made mistaken identifications;
and, in the total absence of supporting evidence, we do not see how
this record can possibly be regarded as anything but uncertain,
refs: 4, 13, 19, 42, 49, 64, 85, 86, 87
31st
December
19°!
Caister, Norfolk; age and plumage unknown; found dead (seen by
ECS) ; specimen untraceable.
refs: 36, 88
14th Jan-
uary 1925
Harlech, Merioneth; adult, winter plumage: sight record (GMF per
FIEF).
ref : 32
April 1925
Toll’s Island, Scilly; age and plumage unknown; sight record.
The manuscript mentioned in the published reference is a collection
of Clark and Rodd papers from The Zoologist, annotated by C. ].
King; it is now in the library of the Edward Grey Institute.
ref: 56
2 1st May
1950
Spiggie Voe, Shetland; ‘immature’; sight record (LSYV).
refs: 4, 18, 79, 82
24th April
I951
Bay of Scousborough, Shetland; ‘immature’, sight record (LSVV).
It is with some reluctance that we include this and the last bird in
this category. They were accepted by Bannerman and have been
listed in the pages of British Birds as adamsii (ref. 82). However, no
details beyond those given here have been published nor are any
now available (LSVV in lilt.). We do feel that some objective
standards must be applied to any record of a species so prone to mis-
identification and, in the absence of any appraisable evidence, we
are logically obliged to regard these records as uncertain,
refs: 4, 18, 79, 82
White-billed Diver in Britain
291
9th October Salthouse, Norfolk; age and plumage uncertain; sight record
1953 (DRW).
refs: 50, 67
20th March Seaton Sluice, Northumberland; adult, winter plumage; sight
i960 record (CB).
(R) ref: 20
13th Jan- Needs Oar, Beaulieu River, Hampshire; adult, winter plumage;
uary 1962 sight record (EM, HAB, DG et at.).
(R) ref: 17
17th Feb- Llanddwyn Island, Anglesey; age and plumage uncertain; sight
ruary 1963 record (GMI, MJW).
(R) (no published references)
1 2th March Foulney Island, Barrow, Lancashire; apparently adult, winter
1963 plumage; sight record (JSh).
(R) (no published references)
26th Dec- North Coates Point, Lincolnshire; adult, apparently most of mantle,
ember 1963 back and scapulars showing breeding plumage, otherwise winter
(r) plumage; sight record (GKB, RLo).
(no published references)
nth to 2 1st St Agnes, Scilly; two individuals; age and plumage not published;
February sight record (HMQ, FHDH).
■965 One bird was seen on nth February and the other on 19th; both
(R) were together on 21st.
refs: 56. 59
8th and 9th Haroldswick, Unst, Shetland; apparently first summer, immature
July 1967 plumage; sight record (FJW, MS, EAM et at.).
(R) ref: 72
9th or 10th Tay estuary (probably Tayport), Fife; apparently adult, winter
March 1968 plumage; died in care (seen byJJDG, SRP) ; specimen not preserved.
This bird was oiled and was seen by the observers in the Dundee
SPG-\ kennels. It was transferred to Aberdeen Zoo where it died
and the body was burnt before a full description had been taken,
refs: 26, 33, 46, 47
2nd June Stornoway, Outer Hebrides; two individuals; age and plumage
1968 uncertain but probably first summer; sight record (BRS, JSa).
(no published references)
3rd October North Ronaldsay, Orkney; age and plumage uncertain; sight
1968 record (DBW).
(no published references)
292
White-billed. Diver in Britain
25th Jan-
uary 1969
(*)
Greetown, Kirkcudbrightshire; apparently adult, winter plumage;
sight record (RHM).
ref: 73
2nd March
1969
Dunnet Bay, Caithness; no age or plumage details available; sight
record (DMS).
(no published references)
30th
Helli Ness, Lerwick, Shetland; apparently juvenile; sight record
August 1969 (GPT, SDH).
(R) ref: 73
REJECTED RECORDS (WRONGLY IDENTIFIED) (8 individuals)
The correct identity in each case is G. immer. An asterisk (*) against
the date indicates that we have personally examined the specimen.
14th Dec- Hickling Broad, Norfolk; ‘immature’; shot (ETB); mount— Dyke
ember 1872 Road Bird Museum, Brighton, case no. 332.
refs: 9, 31, 35, 42, 43, 61, 63, 85, 86, 87
* January
1879
Holy Island, Northumberland; adult <3, winter plumage; 84 mm;
shot (ACh) ; study skin — British Museum (Nat. Hist.), Tring, no.
07.12.5.2.
refs: 8, 29, 42, 51, 52, 84, 85, 86, 87
Before
1886
Possibly mouth of R. Stour or R. Orwell, Suffolk; ‘immature’;
presumably shot; mount — at one time in the Babington Collection
but now lost.
This is the bird figured in Babington (1886). This figured specimen
is not the Pakefield record (page 285) as stated in Harting (1901).
refs: 3, 35, 3^, 42, 43. 55, 63, 74, 77, 85, 86, 87, 88
Late
autumn
>893
Loch Fyne, Argyll; said to be immature; shot (EB, seen by BA, BS) ;
mount — in Manchester Grammar School in 1922 but this location
not checked.
refs: 1, 42, 63, 64, 70, 85, 86, 87
* About
'953
Chichester Harbour, Hampshire; adult, plumage unknown; found
dead (KS per GM) ; skull and rhamphotheca — British Museum
(Nat. Hist.), Tring, no. S/1958.4.1.
This specimen was initially identified as immer, but after five years
or so the finder re-appraised it and on the basis of the bill shape
considered it then to be adamsii. As such it was transferred to the
British Museum where we examined it eleven years later. The gonys
angle is fairly well developed, but the bill is almost totally black
and the gonys fusion is incomplete, the groove running well forwards
towards the tip.
There is some evidence to suggest that the corpse was found during
autumn and, if so, it was probably losing its breeding plumage.
White-billed. Diver in Britain 293
Unknowns aside, what is perfectly clear is that it is an example ol
immer , as the finder had first suspected,
refs: 17, 69
* 1 3th Feb- Islay, Argyll; adult, winter plumage; 86 mm; found dead (GAR ;
ruary 1964 study skin — Glasgow Museum, no. Z64-16 (plate 42).
This bird has a slight asymmetrical deformity of the lower mandible
which gives it the appearance (from one side) of having a strongly
developed gonys angle. In all other respects it is a typical immer.
(no published references)
•About
30th April
•967
North Ronaldsay, Orkney; first winter, no data on plumage; 69
mm; found dead (RHD, KGW) ; skull and rhamphotheca — tem-
porarily in John R. Mather Collection.
(no published references)
14th Feb- Torquay, Devon; adult, winter plumage; sight record (DWG .
ruary 1970
The published photograph of this record clearly shows a dark cul-
men ridge. The bird was therefore immer as the observer had main-
tained when he submitted the photograph, though the editors of the
journal concluded otherwise (see page 263).
ref: 53
LIST OF OBSERVERS, COLLECTORS, etc.
G. H. Ainsworth, B. Allen, A. Anderson, R. H. Appleby, W. Arthur, G. J. Barnes,
Rev J. E. Beckerlegge, C. J. Bibby, Miss H. A. Bidmead, Bolam (grandfather of
G. Bolam), E. T. Booth, C. Bower, G. K. Brown. E. Burgess, D. M. Burn, A.
Chapman (ACh), W. J. Clarke, G. B. Corbet, J. Cordeaux. A. Cross (ACr), P.
Davis, R. H. Dennis, C. E. Douglas, B. Etheridge, Dr C. J. Feare, K. Fenton.
H. E. Forrest, R. Fry, L. Fullerton, G. M. Furlcy. R. M. Garnett, D. Glue, Dr 1.
Goodbody, S. J. Gorzula, D. W. Greenslade, Dr J. J. D. Greenwood, J. Grierson.
F. D. Hamilton, Mrs A. Healam, T. Henderson, F. H. D. Hicks, Miss K. D.
Hogarth, S. D. Housden, D. T. Ireland, G. M. Ireson. P. M. Kent, R. Leavctt
(RLe), Rev J. Lees, R. Lorand (RLo), R. R. Lowe, K. S. Macgregor, R. K.
Macgregor, E. A. Machell, J. Macintosh, J. R. Mather, D. B. McGinn, Mrs E.
Miller, Mr and Mrs R. H. Miller, G. Mountfort, R. M. Ncddcrman. B. S. Pashbs .
Dr I. D. Pennic, S. R. Pepper, Miss H. M. Quick, Dr B. B. Rae. A. M. RafTan.
G. A. Richards, A. H. Rider, Mr and Mrs L. Roberts, Dr M. Rusk. E. C. Saunders.
B. R. Sawford, Mrs J. Sawford (JSa), A. Scales, K. Shackleton. B. Sharpe, J.
Sheldon (JSh), J. Shell (JS), E. Sigston. J. H. Simpson, M. Sinclair. W. Sinclair.
D. M. Stark, A. M. Taylor (AMTa), R. G. Thin. G. P. Threlfall, P. J. Tizzard.
B. W. Tucker, A. M. Tynan (AMTy), L. S. V. Venables, Mrs LT. M. Venables.
A. B. Walker, F. J. Walker. K. G. Walker, A. J. Wallis, M. J. Warren, G. Waterston.
A. Watson, H. G. Watson, Dr R. S. Weir, Mrs J. A. Whyte. D. R. Wilson.
Col F. M. Wood. D. B. Wooldridge.
REFERENCES
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Fyne, Argyllshire, autumn 1893’. Brit. Birds, 16: 59.
2 Andrew. D. G. 1964. ‘Review of ornithological changes in Scotland in 1963’.
Scot. Birds, 3: 167-177 (168L
White-billed. Diver in Britain
294
3 Babington, C. 1886. Catalogue of the Birds of Suffolk. London.
4 Bannerman, D. A. 1959. The Birds of the British Isles. Edinburgh and London,
vol 8.
5 Baxter, E. V. 1957. ‘Review of ornithological changes in Scotland in 1955’.
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6 Bell, D. G. 1967. ‘Ornithological report for Northumberland and Durham
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new series, 16: 197-225 (198-199).
7 Bibby, C., and Bourne, W. R. P. 1974. ‘Pollution still kills’. Birds, 5 (1):
3°-3i-
8 Bolam, G. 1912. Birds of Northumberland and the Eastern Borders. Alnwick.
9 Booth, E. T. 1927. Catalogue of Cases of Birds in the Dyke Road Museum, Brighton.
Fifth edition, edited and revised by A. F. Griffith. Brighton.
10 British Ornithologists’ Union. 1971. The Status of Birds in Britain and
Ireland. Oxford.
11 Campbell, J. W. i960. ‘Review of ornithological changes in Scotland in
1959’. Scot. Birds, 1: 253-259 (255).
12 1962. ‘Review of ornithological changes in Scotland in 1961’. Scot. Birds,
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13 Chislett, R. 1952. Yorkshire Birds. Hull.
14 1952. ‘White-billed Northern Diver near Whitby’. Naturalist, no. 842:
107.
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(130).
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other sea fowl at Scarborough’. Naturalist (1916) : 2 17-2 19.
17 Cohen, E. 1963. The Birds of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. Edinburgh and
London.
18 Corbet, G. B., Thin, R. G., and Editors. 1952. ‘White-billed Northern
Diver in Angus’; ‘White-billed Northern Diver seen in East Lothian’; and
editorial comment. Scot. Nat., 64: 119-121.
19 Cordeaux, J. 1899. List of Birds Belonging to the Humber District, p. 38.
20 Coulson, J. C. 1961. ‘Ornithological report for Northumberland and Durham
for i960’. Trans, nat. Hist. Soc. Northumberland, Durham & Newcastle upon Tyne,
new series, 14: 1-36 (9).
21 Cross, A. 1954. ‘White-billed Diver in Angus’. Scot. Nat., 66: 37-38.
22 Davis, P. E. (ed.) 1961. ‘The rarer birds, spring 1961’. Fair Isle Bird Obs. Bull.,
4: 181-182.
23 1961. ‘Brief reports from the bird observatories. 1. Fair Isle, Shetland’.
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24 1962. Fair Isle Bird Observatory Report 1961.
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26 Dennis, R. H. (ed.) 1971. ‘Scottish Bird Report 1970’. Scot. Birds, 6: 347-402
(352, 401).
27 1972. ‘Scottish Bird Report 197T. Scot. Birds, 7: 107-163 ( 1 15).
28 1973. ‘Scottish Bird Report 1972’. Scot. Birds, 7: 324-385 (331).
29 Evans, A. H. 191 1. A Fauna of the Tweed Area. Edinburgh.
30 Fenton, K. 1953. ‘White-billed Diver in Yorkshire’. Brit. Birds, 46: 214-215.
31 Fleming, J. H. 1922. ‘The White-billed Northern Diver as a British bird’.
Brit. Birds, 16: 115.
32 Forrest, H. E. 1925. ‘Possible White-billed Diver in Merioneth’. Brit. Birds,
I9: 28.
33 Greenwood, J. J. D., and Keddie, J. P. F. 1968. ‘Birds killed by oil in the
Tay estuary, March and April 1968’. Scot. Birds, 5: 189-196.
White-billed Diver in Britain 295
34 Grierson, J. 1954. ‘Report for Tentsmuir and the Eden estuary’. Edinburgh
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35 Griffith, A. F. 1896. ‘On the occurrence of the White-billed Northern
Diver, Colymbus adamsii, in Norfolk’. Zoologist, ser 3, 20: 14-16.
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38 1 957. ‘White-billed Diver in East Lothian’. Scot. Nat., 69: 61.
39 and Macgregor, K. S. 1955. ‘Report on Aberlady Bay Nature Reserve’.
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40 1 957. ‘Report on Aberlady Bay Nature Reserve’. Edinburgh Bird Bull.,
7= 39-
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42 Hartert, E., Jourdain, F. C. R., Ticehurst, N. F., and Witherby, H. F.
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47 1 970. ‘Scottish Bird Report 1969’. Scot. Birds, 6: 62-128 (67, 127).
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52 1908. ‘Notes on the plumage of a Great Northern Diver and a White-
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53 Parrack J. 1972. ‘Diver identification’. World of Birds, 1(8): 12-15; see also
World of Birds, 2(1): 29.
54 Pashby, B. S. 1963. ‘Aberrant specimen of Great Northern Diver’. Naturalist,
no. 884: 30.
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56 Penhallurick, R. D. 1969. Birds of the Cornish Coast. Truro.
57 Pennie, I. D. 1963. ‘White-billed Diver in south-east Sutherland’. Scot. Birds,
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296 White-billed, Diver in Britain
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David M. Burn, Larkswood, Cr ockham Hill, near Edenbridge, Kent
John R. Mather, 44 Aspin Lane, Knaresborough, Yorkshire
Contamination of birds with Fulmar oil
Roger A. Broad
Fisher (1952) summarised the known records of Fulmars Fulmarus
glacialis using their stomach oil in defence against intruders at their
nest sites. In this work he wrote: ‘On the cliffs of the Fair Isle
the fulmars (as would be expected) resent strange intruders, and
threaten such migrant birds as visit their cliffs, including great
spotted woodpeckers [Dendrocopos major ] !’ More recently Dennis
(1970b) reported the oiling of a White-tailed Eagle* and a Honey
Buzzard at Fair Isle and mentioned several other possible victims.
The aim of this paper is to summarise recent reports of Fulmar oiling
from Fair Isle and elsewhere and to discuss its consequences. It is
hoped that this will stimulate other observers to look for similar
cases of what must be a more widespread phenomenon than was
previously realised.
THE NATURE OF THE CONTAMINATION
Fulmar oil is generally thought to be a secretion of the stomach
(Mathews 1949) and can be produced by the chick even as it emerges
from its shell. The oil is usually yellow in colour (although it
may be tinted by ingested foods) and has a characteristic foul, musky
odour. When threatened by an intruder, the Fulmar forcibly ejects
oil in a series of hiccoughs via the open gape in the direction of the
threat. This emission may be repeated several times in succession.
A bird contaminated with this oil is unable to preen it from the
feathers, to which it clings with tenacity. When fresh, this con-
tamination may be recognised as such on a bird in the hand by the
characteristic smell and by being sticky to the touch. Areas of
contamination may often be located by the presence of small parti-
cles of peat, soil or grass adhering to the oil. With age it loses much
of its stickiness and darkens in colour, but it may retain its smell
for a considerable time. G. J. Barnes (verbally) has informed me
that a contaminated wing in his possession still retains its smell
after 13 years!
RECENT OBSERVATIONS
Table 1 lists recent cases of birds contaminated with Fulmar oil on
Fair Isle and elsewhere. It also includes sight records of six birds
of five species with contaminated plumage possibly resulting from
such oiling. The records listed by Dennis (1970b) are included,
except where possible Fulmar contamination of a particular species
has since been proved. Represented in table 1 are 17 species de-
♦Scientific names of birds affected by Fulmar oil are given in table 1
297
Table i. Recent records of birds contaminated with oil ejected by Fulmars Fulmarus glacialis, and (in square brackets) sight records of
birds reported with soiled plumage possibly from Fulmar oil
All localities are in Shetland, except Copinsay (Orkney) and Co. Durham. Data from Dennis (1970a, b), Macmillan (1970), Coulson and Horobin
(1972), Tulloch (1973), G. J. Barnes (unpublished records), D. Coutts (verbally) and personal observations
Species Place Date Extent of oiling Remarks
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Fulmar oil contamination
299
finitely contaminated by this oil, of which four may be classified
as ‘residents’ at the time of the oiling (Great Black-backed Gull,
Raven, Hooded Crow and the introduced White-tailed Eagle) ; the
Peregrine might also belong to this category. Although it is difficult
to assign some species to a particular category, for example the
winter records of Herring Gull, Razorbill and Guillemot, the re-
mainder were mainly migrants. Only two species of small passerines
(Grasshopper Warbler and Reed Bunting) are included in the table,
and it is evidentthat the majority of the birds found Fulmar-oiled are
of larger species. The definite, dated records come from eight months
of the year between April and December, with three-quarters of
these between May and September.
Where known, the extent of the contamination has been given;
birds examined at Fair Isle have been found with contamination
varyingfromlightspatteringto almost total saturation. A Long-eared
Owl in the latter extreme state had the flight-feathers stuck together
and the body-feathers matted, exposing the bare skin in many areas.
A Grasshopper Warbler in a similar state was almost unable to move
its wings which were virtually stuck to its flanks. Thus the effects
are twofold; firstly, when the flight-feathers are contaminated
there is impairment of flight; secondly, when the body-feathers are
contaminated, disarrangement of the insulating feathers may well
result in serious heat loss through the exposed skin.
DISCUSSION
Fulmars first bred at Fair Isle in 1903; they have since increased
rapidly and at the last complete count in 1969 there were estimated
to be 17,000 pairs. Initially the birds deserted the cliffs between
September and December but now, although numbers are lower at
the end of the breeding season, they may be seen ashore at any time
of the year and vacation of the cliffs occurs only in severe weather.
The incidence of Fulmar oil contamination may be viewed against
this background of increasing numbers and increasing attendance
throughout the year. There is a correlation between the Fulmar
breeding season (May to September) and the concentration of
reports of contaminated birds, three-quarters occurring in these
months. This might be expected, as the Fulmar breeding season
spans the main migration months at Fair Isle. The records falling
outside this period (dated records in April, October, November
and December and undated winter records) indicate that inter-
action between Fulmars and other species on the cliffs can occur at
any time of the year, not only during the breeding season in defence
of eggs and chicks.
The cliffs at Fair Isle provide shelter and food for many small
migrants but, considering the large numbers of small passerines
300
Fulmar oil contamination
sometimes present on the sea cliffs, the percentage recorded con-
taminated with Fulmar oil is negligible. Nevertheless, it is difficult
to imagine the circumstances which would culminate in a Fulmar
oiling a Grasshopper Warbler or a Reed Bunting unless the victim
was unintentionally caught in some other conflict.
Birds of prey (including owls) figure prominently in the table.
Since only small numbers pass through Fair Isle, Fulmar oiling must
be a real problem for these migrants. Of the birds of prey affected,
only the White-tailed Eagle has represented a direct threat to the
Fulmar; this species was recorded by Fisher (1952) as one of only a
very few avian predators of adult Fulmars. On Fair Isle the four
young birds introduced in 1968 taught themselves to capture adults
on the wing and one took chicks on the cliffs. It was probably this
last bird that was oiled (Dennis 1970a). The other birds of prey,
posing no direct threat to the Fulmars, were probably contaminated
while seeking refuge on the cliffs, being unable to find any other
place safe from the attentions of the skuas Stercorarius spp and gulls
Larus spp and away from the populated part of the island.
Although both gulls and Ravens take unattended Fulmars’ eggs,
the contaminated young of these species were not opportunist feeders
but were still dependent on their parents for food. The Great Black-
backed Gull chicks were seen to be spra> ed when they wandered too
close to nesting Fulmars, and it is likely that the young Ravens
similarly ran the gauntlet of the Fulmars on the cliffs before they
were fully fledged.
To produce the state of saturation seen in some of the birds, it
would be necessary for several conflicts to have taken place.
Evidence for successive oilings comes from the Grey Heron trapped
with light oiling and then subsequently found dead with its plumage
saturated. This also emphasises the plight of some of the tired
migrants arriving at Fair Isle where suitable food may not be readily
available. Conflict with the Fulmars and the resulting incapacitating
burden of oil might quickly lead to their death.
Actual observations of these conflicts are few but presumably they
must usually happen on land. Dennis (1970b) reported a case of a
Honey Buzzard sprayed by Fulmars when it landed too near them,
and the contamination of the wandering, unfledged gull chicks was
similar. This last observation is paralleled by a case mentioned by
Fisher (1952). However, Tulloch (1971) recorded an incident in
which a Fulmar displaced from a ledge by a Raven returned and
sprayed the intruder as it flew by. Similarly, again in Fisher (1952)
there are two records of Fulmars ejecting oil in flight, once at a man
who had dislodged a sitting bird from its egg. At sea, where Fulmars
follow fishing boats for the offal thrown overboard, their supremacy
is respected even by the larger gulls and Great Skuas S’, skua. Here
Fulmar oil contamination
301
adoption of an aggressive posture, without the emission of oil, is
apparently sufficient in itself.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am indebted to G. J. Barnes for access to his records and for allowing me to
incorporate his observations in this text.
SUMMARY
Recent occurrences of birds contaminated with oil ejected by Fulmars Fulmarus
glacialis at Fair Isle and elsewhere are summarised and the circumstances of the
contamination discussed. Seventeen species were definitely contaminated, the
majority being large birds, particularly raptors and owls. Three other species
were possibly affected. Only two small passerines were reported. Three-quarters
of the reports were during the Fulmar breeding season (May to September), but
interaction is not confined to this period. The winter records are a result of
increased Fulmar attendance on the cliffs at this season. Of the birds affected
only the White-tailed Eagles Haliaetus albicilla introduced on Fair Isle posed a
direct threat to the Fulmars, taking adults and young for food; a minority were
fledging young wandering too close to Fulmars, and the majority of the remainder
were tired migrants, contaminated while seeking refuge on the cliffs.
REFERENCES
Coulson, J. C., and Horobin, J. M. 1972. ‘The annual re-occupation of breeding
sites by the F’ulmar’. Ibis, 1 14: 30-42.
Dennis, R. H. 1970a. ‘Sea Eagles’. Fair Isle Bird Obs. Rep. 1969: 23-29.
1970b. ‘The oiling of large raptors by Fulmars’. Scot. Birds , 6: 198-199.
Fisher, J. 1952. The Fulmar. London.
Macmillan, A. T. 1970. ‘Scottish Bird Report 1969’. Scot. Birds , 6: 62-128.
Mathews, L. H. 1949. ‘The origin of stomach oil in the petrels, with comparative
observations on the avian proventriculus’. Ibis , 91 : 373-392.
Tulloch, R. J. 1971. ‘The oiling of large raptors by Fulmars’. Scot. Birds, 6: 288.
1973- The Shetland Bird Report 1972. Mid Yell, Shetland (privately published').
Roger A. Broad, Bird Observatory, Fair Isle, Shetland
Notes
Grebes eating bread The note and comment on Little Grebes
Tachybaptus ruficollis eating bread {Brit. Birds , 66: 227) prompts me
to record that in April 1967, when attempting to photograph its
Australian counterpart, the Black-throated Little Grebe T. novae-
hollandiae, on a lake in the Botanic Gardens, Melbourne, I saw a
bird of this species taking pieces of bread which were being thrown
to ducks. Its method was to approach underwater and appear on the
surface for long enough only to snatch the food, apparently because
of its nervousness of the people rather than of the ducks.
I was not especially impressed by this behaviour at the time
because I was familiar with the fact that on the Norfolk Broads it
is by no means unknown for Great Crested Grebes Podiceps cristatus
to take bread thrown for other species. Although not usually so
nervous as the Australian bird cited above, they usually wait (on
the surface) on the outskirts of the party being fed until a piece
of food (usually bread) lands near to them, when they grasp and
dive with it. However, in August 1959 and for several subsequent
seasons, one particular bird which frequented Salhouse Broad, on the
River Bure, would come close to a boat among the waiting throng of
Mallards Anas platyrhynchos, feral geese Anser sp, Moorhens Gallinula
chloropus and Coots Fulica atra, and successfully compete with them
for scraps of bread. M. D. England
Mashobra, Neatishead, Norwich nor 37Z
Head plumage of female Scaup R. A. Frost {Brit. Birds, 64: 288)
described four female Scaup Aythya marila which had a whitish
patch in the auricular region in November, December and January,
and suggested that this feature may be retained at least until the
early winter. It appeared that previously this mark had been known
only in summer plumage, and it seems worth recording an additional
November observation. At Surrey Docks, London, on 17th Novem-
ber 1973, I saw five female Scaup (aged as first-winter by
their brown-washed face patches), all of which showed this mark
clearly at ranges up to 100 metres. At close range, say 20 metres, it
appeared as a crescentic mark, but at greater distances it often
appeared as a more rounded spot, varying in obviousness according
to the viewing angle and light. Clearly this mark may be quite
normal in winter female Scaup, at least early in the season. Further,
I wonder whether its presence may provide an additional distinction
between pure female Scaup and some of the similar Aythya hybrids
(see, for example, Lond. Bird Rep., 36: 86-91, plate 1). Notes on the
presence or absence of this head pattern in female Scaup-like
302
Notes
303
hybrids, and on its incidence later in the winter in female Scaup,
would be useful. P. J. Grant
16 Windermere Court, Quantock Drive, Ashford, Kent TN24 8re
Bar-tailed Godwit feeding on open heath For 40 minutes on
3rd October 1973, I observed a Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica
feeding continuously on Wingletang Down, St Agnes, Isles of Scilly.
The vegetation here consists of heather and gorse between large
areas of very short grass, moss and sea thrift. Although occasi-
onally probing to a depth of 2-3 cm, the bird was feeding (presu-
mably on small insects) mainly by picking from the surface with
the tip of its bill. Several other godwits were foraging on the shore
in the normal manner. G. Summers
23 West Close, Stafford st 1 6 3TG
Nocturnal feeding by Pied Wagtails in winter At dusk on 29th
January 1972, at North Road railway station, Plymouth, Devon, we
observed about 20 Pied Wagtails Motacilla alba feeding on flies
(Diptera) which had apparently been attracted by the bright over-
head platform lights. It was thought that these wagtails formed part
of a flock roosting on the upper side of a glass roof nearby. The
small insects flying near the lights were picked off by quick bill
movements of the birds in sustained hovering flight, and also sought
on the surface of mail bags which had been stowed in trollies
on the platform. Other unidentified material was obtained from the
ground. This feeding behaviour was still going on when darkness
had truly fallen.
Among passerines, nocturnal feeding in artificial light by Swallows
Hirundo rustica, Blue Tits Parus caemleus, Robins Erithacus mbecula,
Spotted Flycatchers Muscicapa striata and House Sparrows Passer
domesticus has been reported (Brit. Birds, 59: 501; 60: 255-256;
62: 80; 63: 136-137), but we can find no reference to such behaviour
in Pied Wagtails. Bernard and Marjorie King
Gull Cry, g Park Road, Newlyn, Cornwall
Pied Wagtails roosting at floodlit sewage farms sometimes still
feed after dark on the open sludge beds, but we have not come across
any previous records of nocturnal feeding in or around buildings,
where roosting wagtails are usually very lethargic. Eds
We regret that, owing to shortage of space, it is not possible to include our usual
complement of short items. We trust, however, that readers will appreciate the
importance of the major contribution on the White-billed Diver to which this issue
is largely devoted. The next number will include the ‘Report on rare birds in
Great Britain in 1973’ and so the same is expected also to apply in that instance.
From the September issue onwards, the normal pattern of contents will be resumed.
Eds
News and comment Robert Hudson
Discouraging colonialism? The Wood Sandpiper is a surprisingly successful
species. Not only is it one of the more numerous waders halting to moult in the
shot-torn Mediterranean area, on migration to Africa, it has recently been reported
nesting in new areas at both extremities of its breeding range. Most well-informed
birdwatchers will now be aware that it has been nesting in the Scottish Highlands
since 1959, but the localities are kept secret and the birds left undisturbed. It is
interesting to compare this with the situation in North America, as recorded in the
January 1974 issue of Auk. Apparently the species breeds commonly in the Com-
mander Islands and appears frequently in the Pribilofs, where it was seen displaying
in 1954, while a male in breeding condition and later a young bird were collected
in 1961. Another male in breeding condition and later a downy chick were col-
lected on Amchitka Island in the Aleutians in 1969, but only one bii'd reappeared
there the following year. There appears to have been quite an influx in 1971, when
it recolonised Amchitka, and a male in breeding condition was collected on Adak
Island. Chicks were also found at Massacre Bay on Attu Island in 1973, but this
time they were only photographed. It is concluded that the species is not really
expanding its range into Alaska, but has a long history of temporary breeding
after influxes of migrants in spring. As in a previous case concerning Little Gulls
found breeding in Ontario, an adult and eggs being promptly collected (1963,
Auk, 80: 548-549), some people might think that these birds deserve medals, or
dunce’s caps, or something, for trying to nest in North America at all.
Birthday honours The names of two well-known naturalists appeared in this
year’s Birthday Honours List, published on 15th June, and we congratulate both.
David Attenborough was awarded the CBE for services to nature conservation ; he
is perhaps best known to the general public for his ‘Zoo Quest’ television films,
and for his books on his expeditions to out-of-the-way islands and countries.
Secondly, the MBE was awarded to Mrs Grace Hickling, Secretary of the Nor-
thumberland, Durham and Newcastle upon Tyne Natural History Society; with
particular interests in seabirds and seals, Mrs Hickling is especially cone rned in
watching over the famous Fame Islands reserve, about which she wrote a good
account (under her maiden name, Grace Watt) in 1951, entitled simply The Fame
Islands: their history and wild life (Country Life, London).
Birding by the disabled Nearly three years ago David Glue, on the staff of the
British Trust for Ornithology, had the misfortune to be involved in a car accident
which left him permanently disabled. Undaunted, he has continued his wheel-
chair ornithology; and from his experiences he has decided to write a book on
birdwatching for the disabled. In particular, he is keen to compile a list of signifi-
cant ornithological sites which can be visited by those confined to a wheelchair.
Some RSPB reserves have hides which are modified to take wheelchairs; and
David asks to be sent (c/o BTO, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire) information
on other easily accessible reserves and good birdwatching sites.
Egg on their faces Hard on the heels of the news that Richard Porter has been
promoted within thv Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, from Investi-
gations Officer to Regional Officer for South-east England, comes public revela-
tion of his last investigation and its international ramifications. The story was
unfolded at considerable length in The Sunday Times for 16th Jun', and only a
brief digest can be given here. In the summer of 1973, one David Neville of Coven-
try was convicted for taking Raven eggs in Wales. Richard Porter had come
across the name before, and, with the assistance of the Coventry police, Neville’s
304
Mews and comment
305
house was searched; an egg collection with related data files was seized. Neville
was again prosecuted and fined heavily; but the most important result of the
Coventry raid was the discovery that the data files included correspondence which
revealed international collaboration between egg-collectors, involving Professor
Charles Sibley of the Peabody Museum, Yale University. Professor Sibley is not
an oologist, but his research into avian systematics includes sophisticated analyses
of the proteins in egg albumen; this is fundamental work of great importance, and
Professor Sibley is undoubtedly one of America’s most distinguished ornithologists.
However, to maintain an adequate inflow of research material, it is now known
that he encouraged a wide circle of egg-collectors to supply him with albumen ; and
in the case of Britain he received more specimens than the Home Office had
granted licences for. Following consultations between Richard Porter and the
United States Department of the Interior, special agents of the Fish and Wildlife
Service raided Yale University, seizing correspondence files; and investigations
are still continuing into the activities of 260 egg-collectors in 64 countries. Professor
Sibley was charged with offences under the Lacey Act (which prohibits imports
concerning species protected in their countries of origin), and on 20th May he was
fined §3,000.
Human nature being what it is, it is all too easy to express the wrong sentiments
at a VIP’s discomfiture. Professor Sibley has been quoted as saying that he feels
that bird conservationists are governed by their emotions and have little know-
ledge of bird population dynamics; and there is no doubt that this view has many
adherents in North America. In a previous paragraph I have commented on
certain cases where rare breeding birds were deliberately collected in Alaska and
Ontario; while in a recent issue of Bird Banding (1974, 45: 24-28) A. R. Phillips
used the title ‘The need for education and collecting’ for a polemic in defence of
collecting extralimitals and vagrants, the desirability of having subspecific deter-
minations being one of his major themes. Only gradually are American birders
breaking away from the tradition that first national and state records should be
specimens; and too many American museum workers, typified by A. R. Phillips,
still distrust sight records. It is only six years ago, too, that the International
1 Council for Bird Preservation felt moved to protest publicly at certain experiments
in the USA on water-deprivation until the point of death (see Ibis, 1 10: 207, 579-
580). The sad fact is that, despite sterling work by the various Audubon Societies
(which perhaps concentrate too much on habitats rather than inhabitants), some
aspects of American attitudes to wildlife lag sadly behind those in most west
European countries.
Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds
April reports D. A. Christie
These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
April was a month dominated by anticylonic weather over the whole of Britain
and Ireland. It was generally cold and dry (in Derbyshire the driest month since
February 1957). Winds persisted between north and south-east, resulting in
a number of interesting influxes from the south-eastern parts of Europe. The
arrival of certain migrants and summer visitors will be treated in a later summary,
306 April reports
as will spring movements of some of the commoner species (and of others which
occurred in greater than average numbers).
An unusual spring passage of Black-necked Grebes Podiceps nigricollis was noted
in Bedfordshire, where eight at Blunham gravel pits from 18th to 20th had re-
duced to three by 28th. An albatross off Portland Bill (Dorset) on 27th was
probably a Black-browed Diomedea melanophris (in May one was reported in
Chichester Harbour in Sussex where it was seen perching on boats), and a Little
Shearwater Puffinus assimilis was identified off St Agnes (Scilly) on 30th.
A few southern herons were reported during the month, the first Purple Heron
Ardea purpurea being at Porthgwarra (Cornwall) on 19th, followed by one at
Dungeness (Kent) on 21st and one coming in off the sea at St Catherine’s Point
(Isle of Wight) late in the month. A Little Egret Egretta garzetta arrived at
Warton Marsh, Ribble (Lancashire), on 10th and stayed into May, and one was at
Slapton Ley (Devon) on 20th. A Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax at Maraitaine
Quarry (Guernsey) from early April until 13th May was probably a genuine
vagrant, and the same may well apply to another at Cleator, near Egremont
(Cumberland) from 12th to 18th April. An unusual sight was that of a Bittern
Botaurus stellaris flying high over Chobham Common (Surrey) NNE towards
Windsor Great Park (Berkshire) on 15th.
Spoonbills Platalea leucorodia were reported from eight places. The adult on
the Exe marshes (Devon) on 31st March {Brit. Birds, 67: 250) .'tayed until 7th
May and was joined by an immature on 24th April, which remained to 10th May;
in Kent an adult at Cliffe on 3rd was later joined by an immature, and both were
still present on 5th May, while one was in the Stodmarsh/Westbere area on 14th;
at Minsmere (Suffolk) an adult was seen on 22nd and 29th and an immature on
24th; elsewhere Spoonbills were seen at Frisby gravel pits (Leicestershire) on 7th,
at Holkham (Norfolk) on 13th and 14th, and at Wisbech sewage farm (Lincoln-
shire/Norfolk) and on the Ouse Washes near Purls Bridge (Cambridgeshire) on
20th. Perhaps the ‘bird of the month’ was a Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus which
arrived at Swanscombe (Kent) on 11th and stayed for over four weeks to 12th May;
of particular interest is the fact that a small party of this species arrived in the
Camargue in southern France at about the same time.
A drake Green-winged Teal Anas crecca carolinensis was at Walberswick (Suffolk)
from 20th to 5th May, an immature male American Wigeon A. americana at Eye
Brook Reservoir (Leicestershire) for a month from 17th, and a male of the latter
species on the Ouse Washes between Welney and Welmore (Norfolk) on 19th. A
drake Ring-necked Duck Aythya collaris at Broxbourne (Hertfordshire) from 28th
to 30th is the first record for the London area. (Unfortunately, the possibility
of escape cannot be ruled out for any of these Nearctic wildfowl.) A party of
five Scaup A. mari/a at Chew Valley Lake (Somerset) from 6th is worthy of note.
Predictably there were few reports of Long-tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalis,
and only one from inland: the only English counts above single figures were of
up to 28 at Formby Point between 13th and 23rd, an all-time record for Lanca-
shire, and of 35 off Bridlington (Yorkshire) on 13th, though in northern Scotland a
huge gathering of 3,000 or more was present at Loch Fleet (Sutherland) in the
middle of the month, where there had been only 200 on 24th March. Forty-six
Velvet Scoters Melanitta fusca flew east at Beachy Head (Sussex) on 12 th and
ten east on 29th, while 28 on 28th was the maximum counted off Dungeness
and there was a most unusual record of a drake inland at Upton Warren (Wor-
cestershire) on 2 1st. (Passage of Common Scoters M. nigra will be treated in a
later summary.) Two King Eiders Somateria spectabilis were at Loch Fleet, one
staying until 28th, this species apparently having become almost resident in parts
of northern Scotland in recent years. Late Smew Mergus albellus were reported
from Somerset, Essex, Norfolk, Nottinghamshire and Aberdeenshire, all singles or
pairs. A Greylag Goose Anser anser of the race rubrirostris was reported at Bempton
3°7
April reports
cliffs (Yorkshire) on 13th; this race usually winters east from the Black Sea region.
A Brent Goose Branta bernicla was seen well inland at Girling Reservoir (Essex) on
21st, while a flock of 33 Barnacle Geese B. leucopsis at Spurn (Yorkshire) on 20th
was most unusual.
Apart from records from possible breeding sites, there was a female Goshawk
Accipiter gentilis at Minsmere from 12th to 14th and on 26th. Honey Buzzards
Pernis apivorus were already back in their breeding quarters in Hampshire by
26th, an early date, but we have no information from other known breeding
areas. Leaving aside individuals which had overwintered, there were a number
of records of returning Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosus, including an adult
male at Leighton Moss (Lancashire) on 7th, the earliest ever recorded there;
and singles of the rarer Montagu’s Harrier C. pygargus were recorded at Sand-
wich Bay (Kent) on 11th, Westbury-on-Trym (Bristol) on 14th, Corhampton
(Hampshire) on 16th and Arne (Dorset) on 26th, while a male and a female were
at Minsmere on 28th. Ospreys Pandion haliaetus were reported from ten places
after the two March records (Brit. Birds, 67: 250), in Co. Wexford, Dorset, Sussex,
Kent, Hertfordshire, Staffordshire, Lancashire, Yorkshire, Co. Durham and
Northumberland, though unfortunately we have no information from Scotland.
I Hobbies Falco subbuteo, reported from four places in April, will be dealt with in
a later summary covering arrival dates of certain summer visitors. A Quail
Coturnix coturnix was at Nettleshall (Suffolk) on 13th, and Spotted Crakes Porzana
porzana were at Dungeness on 16th and at Bough Beech Reservoir (also Kent)
about the same time, while at Dinnet (Aberdeenshire) at least two were calling
on 29th; Corncrakes Crex crex were reported only from Skokholm (Pembroke-
shire) on 22nd and from the Calf of Man two days later, when one was trapped.
A female Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus stayed at Cley (Norfolk) from
8th to at least 21st and a male was seen on 28th, one was at Pennington marshes
(Hampshire) on 21st and 29th, and two pairs were reported on the west coast of
Guernsey on 25th. An early Dotterel Eudromias morinellus appeared on Holy Island
(Northumberland) on 28th. There were three April records of Wood Sandpipers
Tringa glareola — two birds near Purls Bridge on 19th and singles at Steart (Somer-
set) and Ecton sewage farm (Northamptonshire) on 27th. Little Stints Caltdris
minuta were reported from Minsmere, Cliffe, Langton Herring (Dorset) and
Marshside, Ribble (three); and Temminck’s Stints C. temminckii from Cley
on 18th and from Sandwich Bay on 7th and at the end of the month, when the
two birds present both exhibited quite definite black leg colouring, contrary to
all we have been taught to believe (see, for example, Brit. Birds, 67: to). Avocets
Recurvirostra avosetta were particularly plentiful during March-May and will con-
sequently be treated in a later summary of the spring season.
A Great Skua Stercorarius skua was at Spurn on 6th, one flew north at Seaton
Sluice (Northumberland) on 12th and two north and one south there on 28th; and
three went east at Beachy Head on 28th, while there was an unusual sighting of
one inland at Ogston Reservoir (Derbyshire) on 12th. Arctic Skuas S. parasiticus
were reported from nine places in south and west England and Yorkshire, and at
Fair Isle (Shetland), where passage occurred from 17th with a maximum of 50 on
30th. The adult Ring-billed Gull Larus delawarensis which had been at Blackpill
(Glamorgan) since 5th December 1973 (Brit. Birds, 67: 130) left on 2nd April,
being replaced the next day by a second-year which stayed for five days; while
these two individuals were probably the same as those recorded in the first half
of 1973 (Brit. Birds, 66: 509-517), a sub-adult which arrived on 27th and stayed
into May was a different bird. It is still a very odd situation that all the confirmed
reports of this Nearctic species have been from one locality. Two other Nearctic
gulls were reported during the month, an adult Laughing Gull L. atricilla at
Loch Skerrols, Islay (Argyll), on 21st and a Sabine’s L. sabini in Scilly on 26th.
Up to three Mediterranean Gulls L. melanocephatus were at Dungeness during
308 April reports
the second half of the month. Little Gulls L. minutus were reported from nine
localities, including 34 at Blackpool (Lancashire) on 21st and over 50 all month at
Eglwys Nunydd Reservoir (Glamorgan), with as many as 73 there at times. The
unprecedented spring passage on the south coast will be treated later.
Three early Nightjars Caprimulgus europaeus were logged, at Maulden Wood
(Bedfordshire) on 25th, at St Catherine’s Point on 26th and in the South Dukeries
(Nottinghamshire) on 30th. A Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus was at Kempton
Park (Middlesex) on 28th and least 17 Hoopoes Upupa epops were found from
3rd in Alderney, Scilly, Cornwall, Devon, Pembrokeshire, Somerset, Hampshire,
Sussex, Kent, Suffolk, Northamptonshire and Warwickshire. A Woodlark Lullula
arborea at Holkham on 7th was presumably a migrant, and another at Kibworth
golf course (Leicestershire) on 20th was the first record for that county for many
years. A migrant Treecreeper Certhia familiaris was at Spurn on 15th and a bird
trapped at Sandwich Bay on 4th was thought to be a Short-toed C. brachydactyla.
Shore Larks Eremophila alpestris were still at Minsmere until 5th (twelve),
at Lade (Kent) until 12th (two), and all month at Bempton cliffs where the
maximum was 27 on 20th. Fieldfares Turdus pilaris, which were reported in some
large flocks and movements, will be dealt with in a later summary.
Savi’s Warblers Locustella luscinioides were singing at Stodmarsh from 1 6th
and the first was recorded at Minsmere on 17th, four singing there by 30th; one
at Portland on 29th was the second Dorset record and the first for the observatory.
Other rarities included a Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans at Lower Bodham,
Holt (Norfolk), on 10th; an Icterine Warbler Hippolais ictenna on Gugh (Isles of
Scilly) on 29th; single Tawny Pipits Anthus campestris in Scilly, on St Agnes on
23rd and on St Mary’s from 23rd to 28th; and a male Black-headed Wagtail
Motacilla Jlava feldegg in Nottinghamshire at Holme Pierrepont on 30th (one was
also present on Fair Isle from 3rd to 8th May).
A Waxwing Bombycilla garrulus was at Tynemouth from 22nd to 24th. Migrant
Great Grey Shrikes Lanius excubitor appeared on the Calf of Man on 8th, near
Scarborough (Yorkshire) on 16th, at Bempton cliffs on 20th and 21st, on Fair
Isle from 28th to 30th, and at Teesmouth where three different individuals were
recorded on 4th, 13th and 29th. Twites Acanthis Jlavirostris were still present
in four places outside their breeding areas, including near Langleeford, well inland
in Northumberland, where a flock of about 20 was seen on nth. A few flocks,
mainly rather small, of Bramblings Fringilla montifringilla were reported, the
largest consisting of 300-400 at Astley (Lancashire), and an influx of 90 was
noted on Fair Isle on 30th, where there were up to 16 Snow Buntings Plectrophenax
nivalis all month. A Lapland Bunting Calcarius lappomcus was at Bempton cliffs
on 24th and two were on Fair Isle on 30th. Finally, a Mealy Redpoll A.f Jlammea
was identified in Scilly on 29th and a pair of Serins Serinus serinus were present
on Alderney from 13th to at least 24th.
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Volume 67 Number 7 July 1974
257 The White-billed Diver in Britain
David M. Burn and John R. Mather Plates 41-44
297 Contamination of birds with Fulmar oil
Roger A. Broad
Notes
302 Grebes eating bread M. D. England
302 Head plumage of female Scaup P. J. Grant
303 Bar-tailed Godwit feeding on open heath G. Summers
303 Nocturnal feeding by Pied Wagtails in winter
Mr and Mrs Bernard King
304 News and comment Robert Hudson
305 April reports D. A. Christie
James Williamson-Bell drew the Fulmar (page 301)
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Volume 67 Number 8 August 1974
EDITORIAL
RARE BIRDS IN GREAT BRITAIN 1973
REASONS FOR RECORD REJECTION
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Editors Stanley Cramp, P. F. Bonham, I. J. Ferguson-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie
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News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove,
Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR
Rarities Committee F. R. Smith, 1 17 Hill Barton Road, Exeter, Devon exi 3PP
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/olume 67 Number 8 August 1974
Editorial
Advances in field identification
Ever since B. W. Tucker wrote the field characters sections of The
Handbook 35 years and more ago, Britain has led the ornithological
world in developing both the criteria and the disciplines of field
identification. We have not by any means held a complete monopoly :
for example, America through Roger Tory Peterson taught us a
considerable lesson in visual presentation in the 1950’s, and recently
'Sweden through Lars Svensson, writing primarily for ringers, has
^stolen a bit of a march in the concise presentation of essential
characters. It seems, however, that in terms of sheer effort we in
Britain still try the hardest to break the barriers surrounding difficult
species or groups. In this respect, the work of several contributors
to this journal has been outstanding. Furthermore, the increasing
experience and, thus, skill of observers are more and more evident
throughout Britain, and nowhere more so than in the files of the
Rarities Committee. It therefore seems strange that there are signs
of a backlash in observers’ opinions on the practicability of further
refinements in diagnosis, and of doubt that some of the ground
already gained will be held. It is also worrying that the number of
observers publishing identification studies has noticeably contracted,
while controversies in the field over both bird and bird guide have
multiplied. In our view, this is not a healthy situation and a lot of
energy is being wasted. Why should this be?
As we have recently pointed out (Brit. Birds, 65: 409-410'), a
large element of potential disservice to observers exists in modern
identification guides. We therefore repeat our conviction that,
where specific identification is difficult, the last word has yet to
309
3io
Editorial
be, indeed may never be, written on many species. The apparent
simplification of diagnosis, occasioned so often by the mere physical
dimensions of the guides and not by their authors’ intents, is a
constant danger to the many observers who lack the older, slower
gospels of identification. This danger exists whenever a guide is
opened, but it is at its greatest when attitudes are conditioned
by either the hectic race for another ‘tick’ or by the instant
impatience with other observers’ opinions that so frequently erupts
these days. Improvements in real knowledge have been accompanied
by less sharing of it, and the stigmata inflicted upon observers when
they make mistakes (and who does not?) can nowadays be severe.
The fine fabric of British identification science is in danger of
being carelessly torn instead of constantly, carefully altered. The
procession of experts (a title still merited) who have worked on
field characters for so many years have commonly exhibited insight,
industry and, perhaps most important, openness of mind. Hardly
one has not seen some of his studies criticised, even made invalid, by
later knowledge, but we should not be blinded by hindsight to the
essential value of the attempts, nor downcast that they occasionally
fail. The challenge in field identification remains for each indi-
vidual observer, whatever his generation, and we see no new answer
to it. The specious quicksilver of field guides and the random
alchemy of observers are poor substitutes for the immutable and
hard-won gold of The Handbook, and of the papers that have tried to
keep the unique promise that it gave to the world.
Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 1973
(with additions for ten previous years)
F. R. Smith and the Rarities Committee
Plates 45-50
This is the sixteenth annual report of the Rarities Committee. The
composition of the committee is still D. I. M. Wallace (chairman),
F. R. Smith (honorary secretary), D. G. Bell, A. R. M. Blake, P. E.
Davis, R. H. Dennis, P. J. Grant, R. J. Johns, R. A. Richardson
and Dr J. T. R. Sharrock but, with several retirements pending, con-
sultations are now taking place with other review bodies in order
to fill the vacancies that will be created.
Rare birds in Great Britain igyj 31 1
The number of records submitted for 1973 was very high, owing
mainly to a heavy autumn passage movement, supplemented from
Nearctic sources in particular, which followed a spring influx swollen
by a record number of about 40 Red-footed Falcons Falco vespertinus.
The total of over 550 records probably exceeded that in the peak
year of 1970, and the difference would have been considerably
greater if the large numbers of Richard’s Pipits Anthus novaeseelandiae
then dealt with were taken into account in the comparison. The
number of species involved was also a record, reaching a total of 1 2 1 ,
compared with 108 in 1972 and 114 in 1971. The acceptance rate
continues to be steady and within the range 80-85% that has become
regular in this decade.
The main systematic list of accepted records is given on pages
313-340, followed by supplementary accepted records for 1962 (one),
1964 (one), 1965 (two), 1966 (two), 1967 one), 1969 (three), 1970
(three), 1971 (six) and 1972 (20). Appendix 1 on pages 344-346
lists the 92 rejected records for 1973, while appendices 2 to 8 list
a further rejection for 1965, one for 1967, three for 1968, one for
1969, two for 1970, one for 1971 and 12 for 1972. It will be noted
from these supplements and appendices that all the outstanding
records of White-billed Divers 6 'avia adarnsii have now been dealt
with (see the paper on this species’ status in Rritain and its identifi-
cation in the July 1974 issue). Appendix 9 gives the single accepted
record for 1973 of a species in ‘category D’ of the British and Irish
list (see Brit. Birds , 66: 332).
The comments on individual species have been prepared by
D. I. M. Wallace, with assistance from P. J. Grant and also from
Davis W. Finch, a regional editor of American Birds, who has provi-
ded much useful information on wader passage in north-east America.
The accepted Irish records have again been included, but it should
be made clear that they have been adjudicated by the Irish Records
Panel. All Irish records are published annually in the Irish Bird
Report (obtainable from S. Cromien, 13 Fingal Place, Prussia Street,
Dublin 7), and we express our gratitude to K. Preston, honorary
secretary of the Irish Records Panel, for agreeing to our repeating
them and for providing advance information. They are given at the
beginning of each species comment as before, after the summary (in
brackets) of the world breeding range.
Photographs of some of the rarities of 1973 are reproduced on
plates 45-50. Observers are again urged to submit any black-and-
white prints of rarities for possible publication.
An up-to-date list of the species considered by the committee is
given in appendix 10. Copies of the revised ‘Unusual Record’ form
are obtainable free of charge from the address on page 348; obser-
vers arc encouraged to use this form wherever possible.
312
Rare birds in Great Britain igyj
The principles and procedure followed in considering records were
explained in the 1958 report (Brit. Birds, 53 155-158), and the
systematic list is set out in the same way as in the 1972 report
(Brit. Birds, 66: 331-360). The following points, some of which weie
outlined more fully in the 1958 report, should be borne in mind, as
they show the basis on which this information has been put together :
(i) The details included for each record are (1) county; (2) locality; (3) num-
ber of birds if more than one, and age and sex if known (in the case of spring and
summer records, however, the age is normally given only where the bird con-
cerned was not in adult summer plumage) ; (4) if trapped or found dead ; (5)
date(s) ; and (6) observer or observers up to three in number, in alphabetical order.
(ii) No record which would constitute the first for Britain and Ireland is pub-
lished by us, even if we consider it acceptable, until it has been passed by the
Records Committee of the British Ornithologists’ Union.
(iii) In general, the report is confined to records which are regarded as certain,
and ‘pr°bables’ are not included. In the case of the very similar Long-billed and
Short-billed Dowitchers Limnodromus scolopaceus and L. griseus, however, we are
continuing to publish indeterminable records and this also applies to observations
of the two pratincoles Glareola spp and of such ‘difficult’ groups as albatrosses
Diomedea spp and frigatebirds Fregata spp.
(iv) The sequence of species, vernacular names and scientific nomenclature
follow the British Trust for Ornithology’s guide A Species List of British and Irish
Birds (1971). Any sight records of subspecies (including those of birds trapped and
released) are normally referred to as ‘showing the characters’ of the race concerned.
Duplicated draft lists of the records in this report have again
been sent to all the county recorders concerned in England and to
the regional recorders in Scotland, Wales and the Isle of Man;
proofs have also been approved by the appropriate authorities in
Scotland, Wales and Ireland and individually by the members of
the committee. This double-checking of the details and improve-
ments in the exchange of information have reduced the likelihood of
discrepancies between reports of this committee and regional
publications. Observers can help by supplying the last dates on
which birds are seen.
Problems concerning escapes and introductions have again been
dealt with by M. D. England, author of a recent review of this sub-
ject (Brit. Birds, 67: 177-197); these become more difficult and
important each year. The Wildfowl Trust has continued to help
with advice on wildfowl escape and identification problems, while
Derek Goodwin has advised on a number of problems that have
involved museum research, under the arrangement made with the
British Museum (Natural History).
The committee is most grateful to the many individuals and
organisations whose co-operation has made the publication of this
report possible. All records should continue to be addressed to
F. R. Smith, 1 1 7 Hill Barton Road, Exeter, Devon exi 3pp.
3i3
, '.are birds in Great Britain igyj
) 'Systematic list of records accepted
'Vhite-billed Diver Gavia adamsii
Ayrshire: Cumbrae, adult $, found shot, 27th January (S. J. Gorzula per C. J.
ibby); specimen temporarily in collection ofj. R. Mather,
orkshire: Hornsea, first-winter, found dead, 8th December (D. T. Ireland,
1 t... R. Lowe, per A. M. Taylor) ; specimen in collection of J. R. Mather.
(Arctic Russia, Siberia and Alaska) These are the first of 15
1 ccepted records published in this report (see also pages 340-342).
"he committee is indebted to David M. Burn and John R. Mather
. jr their thorough review of these and all other past records (see
Irit. Birds , 67: 257-296, plates 41-44). Reference to this paper is
ssential if the identification of large divers is to be safely achieved.
4
Albatross Diomedea sp
(Southern oceans) None off Britain, but one off Cape Clear
sland, Co. Cork, on 17th May was about the 32nd ever.
Tory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea
Ufgyll: I lay, 19th August (K. Verrall).
"evon: Sidmouth, 3rd May (P. Clement).
Hampshire: St Catherine’s Point, Isle of Wight, 3rd May (D. B. Wooldridge),
dcilly: km off St Mary’s, three, 8th September (M. A. Brazil, T. A. Walsh).
At Mary’s, 12th October (B. Bland, P. J. Milford).
idutherland: about 35 km north-west of Point of Stoer, 4th October (A. C.
Maclcod).
i Yorkshire: Spurn, 25th August (F. J. Walker).
(East Atlantic and Mediterranean) Also eleven off Cape Clear
I sland, Co. Cork, on 5th August, and singles there on 6th, 9th and
: > 1 s t August; and five off Cork Harbour on 9th August. This was the
linth consecutive year yielding spring records.
Little Shearwater Puffinus assimilis
(Atlantic south from Madeira and Caribbean, and southern
Pacific and Indian Oceans) Singles off Cape Clear Island, Co.
iLork, on 6th June and 21st August, and two there on 10th August.
These are the first since 1968 and bring the all-time total to about
40. The three autumn birds were almost simultaneous with
l Lory’s Shearwaters at Cape Clear Island and Cork Harbour.
IFrigatebird Fregata sp
(Tropical and sub-tropical seas) None around Britain, but one
)ff Cape Clear Island, Co. Cork, on 24th August. Birds of this genus
nave been acceptably recorded twice off Britain (in July 1953 and
August i960), but this is the first for Ireland. The only specific
identification has been of the Magnificent Frigatebird F. magnijicens.
3H
Rare birds in Great Britain igj j
Purple Heron Ardea purpurea
Bedfordshire: Caddington, adult, found shot, August ( per C. Banks, P. F. Bon-
ham).
Dumfriesshire: Hightae Loch, 27th May (A. Goodwin, R. T. Smith).
Essex: Orsett, immature, 26th May (S. G. F. and Mrs C. Y. Davies).
Hampshire: Sandown, Isle ofWight, adult, 17th June (S. Downes, D. C. Lang).
Kent: Stodmarsh, adult, 29th April (J. D. Fearnside, J. N. Hollyer, M. G. Wells
et at.). Murston, adult, 20th May (R. Smith). Dungeness, 29th July (J. R. H. Cle-
ments).
Suffolk: Minsmere, adult, 27th April to 9th May and 19th May to 18th June;
immature, nth to 24th June; five immatures in morning of 24th July and two in
evening (H. E. Axell, G. Cornford, A. Diebel et at.).
Sussex: Glynde Reach, adult, 28th May (D. C. Lang, P. J. Wilson et at.).
(South-central Eurasia, north to Netherlands, and Africa) The
spring and early summer records are unexceptional, but the events
of 24th July were almost without precedent for a single locality
(even Minsmere, which has long attracted this species). Since 1958
at least 150 individuals have been recorded in Britain, but only two
in Ireland.
Little Egret Egretta gargetta
Caernarvonshire: Pwllheli, 21st May (P. R. Barnett).
Carmarthenshire: Ferryside, 21st May (T. A. W. Davis).
Devon: River Taw, the one recorded from 18th November 1972 (Brit. Birds, 66:
334) was last seen on 21st February (D. Price).
Kent: Cliffe Pool and Marshes, 23rd June (T. E. Bowley, R. F. Hutchings, L. F.
Woollard et at.). Medway estuary, 26th to 30th August (J. F. Holloway et at.).
Lincolnshire: Holbeach Marsh, 3rd June and 29th July (D. Buck, W. Walker, P.
N. Watts). North Killingholme, 6th to 17th June (K. Atkin, P. Haywood, G. M.
Roberts et at.).
Orkney: Sandwick, 18th to 27th May (E. Balfour, C. J. Booth, G. Wylie et at.).
Pembrokeshire: Martin’s Haven, the one first recorded on 20th November 1972
(Brit. Birds, 66: 335) stayed until at least 14th January (J. W. Donovan, B. L.
Sage et at.).
Yorkshire: Seamer, Scarborough, 27th May (R. H. Appleby, W. Clark, B.
Cockerill et at.). Hornsea Mere, 30th May (C. J. Bibby, J. Day, D. T. Ireland et at.).
(South Eurasia, Africa and Australia) The small spring influx
produced an exceptionally wide geographical scatter, the first bird
being surprisingly the farthest north. There is also the hint of one
remaining to wander the east coast of England throughout the
summer. Since 1958 about 130 have been recorded in Britain and 30
in Ireland. The high incidence of Irish records shows clearly how the
approach of this species differs from that of the Purple Heron — this
from the south, the other from the east.
Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloides
Somerset: Chew Valley Lake, adult, 26th May (A. Ashman, A. Bundy, D. Lad-
hams et at.).
are birds in Great Britain igys 3 i 5
(South Europe, south-west Asia, and Africa) Until 1919, it was
lis species of southern heron that most frequently reached Britain
nd Ireland and it was the Purple Heron and Little Egret that were
| le great rarities. Since 1958, however, no more than nine are known
> have appeared.
night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax
rent: Cottington Court, 27th June (A. J. Greenland).
. eicestershire/Rutland : Eye Brook Reservoir, immature, 17th to 26th Nov-
nber (K. Allsopp, R. E. Cox, C. Towe et at.).
lincolnshire: Boston, immature, 13th to 19th November (B. Kettle, P. Pearson
al.) (plate 45a).
(South Eurasia, Africa and the Americas) Surprisingly, only
tree records of a species that averaged seven individuals annually
uring 1968-72. The grand total for Britain and Ireland is now over
30.
.little Bittern Ixobrychus rninutus
.vyrshire: Culzcan, 22nd to 24th May (G. Riddle, M. Wilson).
•tevon: Exminster Marshes, <J, 6th May (R. A. Harding).
hurham: Hurworth Burn Reservoir, <J, 1st June (A. Wilson, C. Wray).
nvemess-shire: Boat of Garten, $, 28th May (Miss H. Dow).
^ent: Westbere, two cJ<J, 6th May (J. N. Hollycr).
lYorfolk: Weybournc, <J, 6th to 10th May (A. J. L. Smith et al.).
iVorthamptonshire: Hollowed Reservoir, 8th June (C. J. Coe et al.).
(West Eurasia, Africa and Australia) After only four records in
noth 1971 and 1972, the fortunes of this species are restored by a
widespread spring influx, with three occurrences reflecting the
; nusual penetration by Little Egrets of northern England and
i cotland. As for the last species, the grand total is now over 230.
White Stork Ciconia ciconia
Somerset: Paulton, 10th August (A. G. and Mrs A. A. Snelling).
nuffolk: Havergate, 16th and 17th May (R. J. Partridge, P. J. Roberts et al.).
(Central and south Europe, south-west Asia and north-west
Africa) Although exceptionally numerous in 1967, 1971 and 1972,
\ the other 13 of the last 16 years the annual average has been only
ne. The grand total must now be about 140 (nearly one-third in
he last three years), but none has reached Ireland since 1909.
■ilossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellas
Yorkshire : Spurn, 13th August (B. Banson, A. Butler, B. R. Spence et al.);
Vath Ings, 22nd August (C. Needham).
(Cosmopolitan but very local, nearest breeding colonies in Balkans)
'Although the two localities are some 135 km apart, it is reasonable to
uppose that these records refer to the same individual. It has become
3 1 6 Rare birds in Great Britain 1979
unusual for this declining species to occur in consecutive years and,
as in 1972, the date is exceptionally early in autumn (most have
been during September-December) . These are only the twelfth and
thirteenth records (involving probably nine individuals) since 1958.
Green-winged Teal Anas crecca carolinensis
Drakes showing the characters of this North American race of the
Teal were recorded as follows:
Durham: Hurworth Burn Reservoir, 23rd December to 28th January 1974
(M. A. Blick, P. T. Salmon et at.).
Inverness-shire: Struy, 7th June (M. I. Harvey). Longman Bay, 12th December
(R. H. Dennis).
Orkney: Eynhallow, 2nd November (M. A. Macdonald).
Ross-shire: Dalmore, Alness, 10th February to 3rd March (A. R. Mainwood).
Yorkshire: Gouthwaite Reservoir, 10th February to 4th March (F. A. Wardman
et at.) ; this is the fifth successive year that presumably the same drake has been
seen here.
(North America) Also single birds on the North Bull, Co. Dublin,
on 1 8th October and at Kilcolman Wildfowl Refuge, Co. Cork, on
28th December.
Blue-winged Teal Anas discors
Orkney: Stronsay, two both shot, 5th September ( per A. Allison, R.
Zawadski et at.).
American Wigeon Anas americana
Durham: Seal Sands, Teesmouth, 4th December (R. Wakely).
Kinross-shire: Loch Leven, (J, 8th June to 6th August (A. Allison).
London: Surrey Docks, 29th August (R. Alderton).
Outer Hebrides: North Uist, d1, 23rd April to 1st June (P. Coxon et at.).
Perthshire: Carsebreck, $, 24th March (Dr D. M. Bryant).
Shetland: Haroldswick, Unst, 16th to 24th May (G. Bundy, M. Sinclair).
(North America) Also a pair at Akeragh Lough, Co. Kerry, on
25th February which were the first to reach Ireland since 1969.
The April-June birds were only the sixth, seventh and eighth in
those months since 1958. The total number recorded in Britain and
Ireland is now about 71, over two-thirds since 1958.
Ring-necked Duck Aythya collaris
Buckinghamshire: Marlow gravel pits, the recorded from 17th December
1972 (Brit. Birds, 66: 337) stayed until 15th July and was seen again from 1 6th
December until 17th April 1974 (R. E. Youngman et at.).
Devon: Beesands Ley and Slapton Ley, J, presumed to be the bird recorded
each year since 1970 (Brit. Birds, 66: 338), from 20th December 1972 until 1 8th
March, from 7th to 22nd April, on 2nd June and from 25th October to the end of
the year (M. R. Edmonds, D. G. Warman et at.).
Rare birds in Great Britain igj3 31 7
Somerset: presumed to be the bird recorded in 1971 and 1 972 {Brit. Birds,
66: 338), at Blagdon Reservoir, Cheddar Reservoir and Chew Valley Lake from
1 6th March to 4th June and from 28th August to 4th October (A. H. Davis,
B. Rabbitts, K. E. Vinicombc et at.).
(North America) The astonishing loyalty to past localities conti-
nues, and still not a female in sight!
Surf Scoter Melanitta perspicillata
Northumberland: Bamburgh, 25th October to at least 10th February 1974
(A. J. P. Gloth, M. Henry et at.).
(North America) Long stays are not unusual in this Nearctic
sea-duck, but this is the first on the east coast of England since 1961.
Steller’s Eider Polysticta stelleri
Outer Hebrides: South Uist, the (J recorded in 1972 (Brit. Birds, 66: 338)
stayed throughout 1973 and until at least June 1974 (R. Jones, Mrs M. E. Lacey,
J. O’Sullivan et at.) (plate 48).
King Eider Somateria spectabilis
Ayrshire: $, presumed to be the bird recorded in 1971 and 1972 (Brit. Birds,
66: 338), at Barassie on 10th March (W. R. Brackenridgc, I. H. Leach), Skel-
morlie from 15th April into May (W. W. Wardrop) and Ballantrac from 8th to
14 July (W. R. Brackenridgc, M. E. Castle, R. H. Hogg et at.).
Buteshire: Great Cumbrae, <J, 29th May (D. M. Bryant), presumed to be the
Ayrshire bird.
Caithness: Holborn Head, two 18th October, one to 31st December (L. I*.
Alder, Mrs P. M. Collett et at.).
Shetland: Walls, $, 25th February (D. Coutts, I. Sandison). Cliff Sound/Trondra,
cJ, nth March to 6th May, 13th November to 31st December (D. Coutts, P. K.
Kinnear et at.). Gulberwick, $, 1st to 3rd April (D. Coutts, Dr B. Marshall,
J. Spriggs). Ulsta, Yell, immature <$, 8th to 17th May (D. Coutts, R. J. Tul-
loch). Mangaster Voe and Muckle Roe, (J, 1st to 7th June (P. H. Rathbonc).
Fair Isle, <$, 15th and 16th September (R. A. Broad, D. J. Holman, N. Riddiford
et at.). Cunningsburgh, (J, 10th November (W. Johnson, P. K. Kinnear).
Sutherland: Loch Fleet, <J, 17th November to at least May 1974 (J. and G. Bell,
D. Macdonald).
(Circumpolar Arctic) The trends to greater numbers and more
southerly occurrences continue. Just how many birds are involved
it is difficult to judge, but 14 records make an impressive showing.
That two should feature females is noteworthy, too; since 1958
only two others have been recorded. The grand total of individuals
now stands at 95 or thereabouts.
Lesser White-fronted Goose Anser erytkropus
Gloucestershire: Slimbridge, adult, 2nd December to at least 23rd February
1974 (L. P. Alder, M. A. Ogilvie, Sir P. Scott et at.). A small goose seen flying
over Chalford, Gloucestershire, in company with 15 White-fronted Geese A.
albifrons on 28th November, and heading for Slimbridge, was very probably
the same bird.
3 1 8 Rare birds in Great Britain 1973
(North-east Europe and Siberia) It is sad that changes in the
winter status of the European White-front A. a. albifrons and the
Bean Goose A. f abatis seem to have influenced the appearances of
this beautiful bird. From 1954 to i960 it came regularly to south-
west Scotland, and from 1949 to 1967 to Norfolk, but since 1968 there
have been only three away from Slimbridge, and one of those (in
Carmarthenshire in 1971) was thought to have come from there.
This bird brings the total of British identifications to about 90
individuals. There is one Irish record, in Co. Wexford in 1969.
White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla
Cornwall: Nare Head and Fal River area, last two weeks of December (P. A.
Maker, B. Mallow, P. R. G. Marriott et at.).
(South Greenland and Iceland, then east from Norway and
eastern Europe to Pacific) Also one shot at Garrison, Co. Fermanagh
on 1 ith January. The first to reach Britain and Ireland since 1962.
This increasingly rare eagle was once resident, last breeding in
Scotland in 1916.
Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus
Aberdeenshire: Glen Tanar, found dead, 18th \pril (N. Picozzi).
Argyll: Tiree, 27th to 31st December (Dr J. M. and I. L. Boyd).
Caithness: Berriedale Water, 2nd April (M. R. M. Leslie, R. Low, C. McKenzie).
Off Outer Hebrides : immature d landed on trawler about 65 km west of Outer
Hebrides about 16th February, brought into Aberdeen on 21st; released in
Shetland 2nd March, seen nth and 18th March by D. Coutts and R. J. Tulloch
(R. H. Dennis, N. Picozzi et at.).
Shetland: Fair Isle, 22nd April (R. A. Broad).
(Circumpolar Arctic) As in 1972, an above-average showing of
this impressive raptor. At least 40 have been seen since 1958; from
that year to 1965 November-January records made up eleven out of a
total of 18, but over the last 16 years as a whole those from March to
May have grown to nearly half of the total.
Red-footed Falcon Falco vesper tinus
Ayrshire: Colmonell, $, 16th and 17th July (I. H. Leach).
Berkshire: Earley, Reading, $, 6th June (T. A. Guyatt).
Derbyshire: Chelmorton, $, 28th May (Mr and Mrs Dean).
Devon: Hartland Forest, $, 28th May (D. G. Gilbert).
Essex: East Tilbury, §, 29th July (D. Martin).
Fife: Isle of May, $, 19th May (J. H. B. Munro).
Glamorgan: Kenfig Pool, $, 20th to 31st May (P. G. Lansdown, J. R. Smith, C.
Stockton et at.).
Gloucestershire: Frampton-on-Severn, 25th May (J. R. Hunter). South
Cerney, $, 30th May (D. V. Mardle).
Rare birds in Great Britain 1973 3!9
Hampshire: New Forest, 25th May to at least 23rd June, 9, 7th to 1 6th June
(D. F. Billett, P. J. Curry, J. H. Taverner et at.). Farlington, 9> 5th an<^ 6th June
(D. F. Billett, A. N. Williamson et at.).
Kent: Sandwich Bay, 9> 26th May (J. N. Hollyer). Dungeness, 9> 26th to 28th
May (J. Dixon, K. Redshaw et at.). Harty, Isle of Sheppey, immature, 18th and
19th August (T. E. Bowley, J. Francis, C. E. Wheeler et at.).
Lancashire: Ainsdale, (J, 20th May (W. J. and W. D. Clift, L. McCoskery et at.).
Lincolnshire: Kcelby, 9> 26th May (D. C. Hodgson).
Norfolk: Burnham Overy, 9, 20th May (J. A. W. Moyes); Holme, 9, 21st May;
9, 12th July (P. R. Clarke). Salthouse, 9> 26th May (M. A. Blick, W. E. Fletcher,
P. T. Salmon).
Northumberland: Lynemouth area, immature (J, 14th June to 21st September
(D. T. Metcalfe et at.).
Nottinghamshire: Colwick, c?> 31st May to 6th June (M. C. Powell, N. R.
Stocks, K. Thornton et at.).
Outer Hebrides: Benbecula, 16th to 21st June (Dr I. T. and Mrs M. M.
Draper).
Shetland: Whalsay, 9> 1 7th June (J. H. Simpson). Tresta, (J, 26th June to at least
4th July (D. Coutts, Dr B. Marshall, I. Sandison).
Somerset: Barrow Gurney Reservoir, (J, 4th October (D. Bu fiery).
Staffordshire: Cannock Chase Reservoir, 28th May to 6th June (A. R. M.
Blake, R. A. Hume et at.).
Suffolk: Walberswick, 9, 30th May (F. K. and Mrs A. E. Cobb, Miss A. J. Towns).
Minsmere, (J, 31st May to 8th June, immature cj, 9th to 1 6th June, (J, 1st to 13th
July, (J, 1st to 5th September (H. E. Axell, S. C. Joyner, P. J. Makepeace et at.).
Sussex: Beachy Head, <?, 10th May (J. F. Cooper); cj, 1st June (P. Brown).
Rye, 13th June (D. L. Brown).
Sutherland: Meiklc Ferry, Dornoch, <£, 1st May (F. E. Prove).
Wiltshire: Tilshead, 9, 1st and 2nd June (F. Mavrogordato, G. L. Webber et at.).
Yorkshire: Spurn, 9» 23rd to 26th May (S. Lister, B. R. Spence, S. J. Weston et
at.); 2nd June (J. Gudworth, J. C. Lidgate, D. Smith et al.) \ <J, 9th June (J.
Cudworth, P. Dclaloyle, C. Massingham et at.). Hornsea Mere, cJ, 14th June (D.
T. Ireland). Knaresborough, immature, 27th August (J. R. Mather, P. T. Tre-
loar).
(East Europe and south from Siberia) Although this insectivorous
falcon has been an expected spring and early summer vagrant for
many years, this influx was on an entirely new scale (both numeri-
cally and geographically). About 40 birds in 24 counties completely
eclipses the previous record numbers of 1959, 1961, 1967 and 1969.
The spring arrivals were also remarkable in that most females came
earlier than males and outnumbered them. Both sexes went farther
north than usual, with twelve records from north of the Humber.
Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni
Glamorgan: Vale of Neath, 7th November (P. G. Lansdown).
Staffordshire: Cannock Chase Reservoir, 4th November (A. R. M. Blake).
Sussex: Steyning, 4th November (C. E. Messer).
320
Rare birds in Great Britain igyj
(South Europe, west-central and east Asia and north-west
Africa) This astonishing trio confirms the trend over the last five
years for this small falcon to appear in late autumn. This is not new,
however, since four of the 13 before 1969 were also in October or
November. The Staffordshire record is particularly noteworthy in
being the only one in an inland county in a total of 17 records, all
in Britain except one in Ireland.
Crane Grus grus
Middlesex: Greenford, 3rd June (A. J. L. Smith).
Shetland: Foula, 2nd and 3rd June (R. Furness, J. Vernal).
(North and central Eurasia, locally south to Turkey) Not since
1964 have there been no more than two records in a year.
Sora Rail Porzana Carolina
Scilly: St Agnes, immature, 26th September to 9th October (A. R. and B. R.
Dean, D. Smallshire et at.).
(North America) This is the first since 1920 and only the sixth
ever. Full details, plus a short review of immature crake identifica-
tion, will be published shortly.
Little Crake Porzana parva
Scilly: St Agnes, adult J1, 9th October (D. I. M. Wallace).
Suffolk: Minsmere, 27th September (E. Hosking).
(Central and east Europe and west Asia) The first since 1970. The
19 records since 1958 fall into the historical pattern of spring and
autumn vagrancy and rare winter discoveries. The grand total for
Britain and Ireland is now about 86.
Sociable Plover Vanellus gregarius
Hampshire: Brighstone/Atherfield, Isle of Wight, 6th October (J. Pain et at.).
(South-east Russia and west-central Asia) Only the 13th record
of this rare plover, all August-December apart from one in January,
one in April and one in July.
Lesser Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica
Scilly: St Mary’s, 20th to 25th September (R. P. Bowman, D. B. Hunt et at.) ;
St Mary’s and St Agnes, two, 28th September to 15th October, one staying to
20th October (P. D. Hyde, E. G. Phillips et at.).
Somerset: Steart, 23rd and 24th September (A. H. Davis, R. H. Ryall, K. E.
Vinicombe).
(Arctic North America and north-east Asia) These records consti-
tute the first ‘group arrival’ of this species to Britain and Ireland.
The long, presumably recuperative stay of the later birds in Scilly
(both undoubtedly of the nominate American race) echoed those of
the 1962 individual there and of the first 1971 Cornish bird. Singly
or together, they roosted on St Mary’s and commuted daily to and
from St Aenes.
321
Rare birds in Great Britain igyg
Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus
Cornwall: Marazion Marsh, 25th September to 6th October (J. 13. and Mrs S.
Bottomley et at.) (plate 46).
Somerset: Porlock Marsh, 29th September to 26th October (E. S. Clare, J. D.
Sanders, B. W. Thomas et at.) (plate 47).
Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus or L. griseus
Argyll: Loch Riddon, 5th April (E. Hutchison).
Hampshire: Stanpit Marsh, Christchurch, 2nd and 3rd December (M. J. Arnold,
C. I. Husband).
Kent: Sandwich Bay, 22nd September to nth October (D. M. Batchelor, G.
Halliwell et at.).
Shetland: Fair Isle, 20th and 21st September (G. J. Barnes, A. Parker, P. Sellar
et at.).
Yorkshire: Bolton-on-Swale, 31st January (G. D. Moore).
(North America) The September arrival of the two Long-billed
and two of the unidentified dowitchers within the same twelve-day
period as the four Lesser Golden Plovers above and eight of the
Huff-breasted Sandpipers Tryngites subruftcollis on page 324 is striking,
as is the high total for 1973 of seven dowitchers. There was none in
Britain in 1972 (and none in Ireland in the year under review).
Stilt Sandpiper Micropalama himantopus
Essex: Walton-on-the-Naze, 2nd September (M. Hutchings, J. K. Weston).
(North America) The eleventh record for Britain and Ireland,
for once associated with the simultaneous arrival of other American
waders.
Great Snipe Gallinago media
Nottinghamshire: Hoveringham, 30th and 31st March (K. Corbett. D. H. and
Mrs Y. M. Tyldesley et at.).
Scilly: St Martin’s, 21st October (R. V. A. Marshall).
Shetland: Out Skerries, 20th to 27th September (I. S. and Mrs S. Robertson).
(North-east Europe and north-west Asia) These three bring the
total since 1958 to 30 (the figure in the last report should have been
27), but the grand total for Britain and Ireland is over 200. No
change in the pattern of occurrence or in the difficulty of identifica-
tion is apparent.
Upland Sandpiper Bartramia longicauda
Yorkshire: Bolton-on-Swale, 6th August (G. D. Moore).
(North America) An exceptionally early record of a species
normally to be looked for after the arrival of Buff-breasted Sand-
pipers; with a growing number of other American wader records
‘out of season’, it again prompts the thought of vagrant unmated
adults an ocean away from home. The twelfth in Britain and
Ireland since i960, it brings the all-time total to 27.
322
Rare birds in Great Britain igyg
Spotted Sandpiper Tringa macularia
Glamorgan: Oxwich, 27th August to 4th September (M. Davies, P. G. and Mrs
C. M. Lansdown et at.).
(North America) This species missed a year in 1972. This is
the 2 1st to reach Britain; only one has been identified in Ireland.
Lesser Yellowlegs Tringa flavipes
Hampshire: Pennington Marshes, 18th September (R. Dunn, E. J. Wiseman).
Lincolnshire/Norfolk: Wisbech sewage farm, 11th October (B. W. Jarvis).
Northamptonshire: Ditchford gravel pits, 9th and 10th May (R. W. Bullock
et at.).
Scilly : Tresco, 2nd to 17th September (D. B. Hunt, I. J. and M. G. Ibbotson et
at.).
Yorkshire: Seamer sand and gravel pits, 27th May and 5th June (R. H. and Mrs
A. M. Appleby, B. Cockerill et at.).
(North America) Also four at Akeragh Lough, Co. Kerry, on
6th August, declining to three from 7th to nth and to two from 12th
to 15th. With several records of wintering in Europe and Africa,
March-May occurrences are less surprising than formerly and now
total nine since 1958. This species has occurred over 100 times in
Britain and Ireland.
Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus
Devon: Plym estuary, 17th November to 5th May 1974 (P. F. Goodfellow, R.
Smaldon et at.).
Kent: Sandwich Bay, 20th May (D. M. Batchelor, C. K. Dunkley, T. Fox et at.).
(North-east Europe and Siberia) With only eight previous
records, two in one year is exceptional. Even more remarkable is
the wintering of the Devon bird (on which a note will be published
shortly). The spring migrant occurred during the 16-day period
spanned by the 1963, 1969 and 1972 individuals. We are tempted
to assume that some of the small Fenno-scandian population has
begun to migrate through western Europe and it will be fascinating
to see if more recur.
Baird’s Sandpiper Calidris bairdii
Kent: Bough Beech Reservoir, 22nd and 23rd September (B. Bland, C. Slade).
Somerset: Porlock Marsh, 15th September (J. Cantelo).
Sussex: Arlington Reservoir, 1 ith to 18th September (P. J. Wilson et at.).
(Extreme north-east Siberia and North America) Also one at
Swords, Co. Dublin, from 4th to 6th October. Four in a year is
about the average for the past decade and the dates are typical. At
least 47 are known to have reached Britain and Ireland.
White-rumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis
Cheshire: Weaver estuary, two, 9th to 1 ith August (Dr R. J. Raines), one stay-
ing to 19th, perhaps 27th (Dr J. N. Yates et at.).
Rare birds in Great Britain igyj 323
Durham: Dorman’s Pool, Teesmouth, 4th to 14th August (T. J. Francis, G. D.
Moore, A. J. Wheeldon et at.).
Lincolnshire/Norfolk: Wisbech sewage farm, 28th July to 10th August (K.
Atkin, J. A. W. Moyes et al.).
Norfolk: Cley, 1 1 th August (S. C. Joyner et at.). Thornham Harbour, 24th Octo-
ber (B. L. Sage).
Orkney: Cleat, Sanday, 23rd July (D. Lea). Deerness, 28th October (C. J. and
C. M. Booth).
Shetland: Grutncss, 7th to 11th November (D. Coutts, L. Dalziel et al.).
Suffolk: Walberswick, 25th July to 1st August (C. R. Naunton, J. Shackles el al.)
(plate 49b). Minsmere, 30th and 31st August (H. E. Axell, M. Tasker, R. Tooth
et al.).
(North America) Alsooneat Akeragh Lough, Co. Kerry, from 17th
to 22nd October, and one in the Bann estuary, Co. Londonderry,
from 27th to 30th October. An interestingly varied set of records of a
species that has become the third commonest American wader in
Britain and Ireland, having overtaken the Lesser Yellowlegs in the
last three years. Although a wide temporal scatter has been noted in
several years, the seven between 23rd July and 1 1 th August set a new
puzzle to which vagrant unmated adults again give the readiest answer.
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata
Flintshire: Shotton, 14th to 24th October (C. D. N. Johnson, J. D. Venables,
G. A. Williams et al.) (plate 50 and see pages 351-352).
Merioneth: Morfa Harlech, 14th and 15th October (P. Hope Jones).
(North-east Siberia) Also one at Ballycotton, Co. Cork, on 30th
August, the first for Ireland. Three in one year break all previous
conceptions of the status of this species. The earlier records number
only eight, and even the mass rarity-searching of recent years
has produced only three since 1961. The Welsh birds came later than
any others. Before it is assumed that these vagrants came west-
wards from Siberia by way of Europe, it should be noted that several
reached the Atlantic coast of North America during the autumn.
Western Sandpiper Calidris mauri
Devon: Axmouth, 9th to 12th September (B. J. Mathews, D. E. Pauli et al.).
Essex: Rainham, 21st to 23rd July (K. Noble et al.).
(North-east Siberia and Alaska) These two records, only the
second and third for Britain (the first since 1956), bring the total
for Britain and Ireland to five. The Rainham bird showed partial
breeding plumage and its arrival was clearly associated with the
early White-rumped Sandpipers above. It is likely that this species
crossed the Atlantic on other occasions in 1973, since it was also
reported from Brittany and Portugal. Significantly, Western Sand-
pipers were unusually common in north-east America during the
autumn; concentrations of up to 100 were noted in September in
Massachusetts, where the passage was the largest for many years.
324
Rare birds in Great Britain 1973
Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis
Cornwall: Stithians Reservoir, four, 8th to 16th September (Reverend J. E.
Beckerlegge, H. P. K. Robinson, L. P. Williams et at.).
Devon: Lundy, two, 2nd September (J. N. Dymond, Miss D. B. Ogden) ; one, 7th
(M. Rogers); two, 19th September (C. J. Cornell, Miss G. Crouch).
East Lothian: Aberlady Bay, 7th to 9th September (H. Galbraith, W. Wyper,
B. Zonfrillo et at.).
Fife: Tentsmuir, 30th September (Dr D. M. Bryant).
Flintshire: Shotton, trapped, 18th to 28th October (M. Jones, Dr R. J. Raines,
DrJ. N. Yates et at.) (plate 49c).
Lancashire: Cockerham, 31st August and 1st September (K. E. Hague).
Man: Calf of Man, 17th September (R. J. Haycock, M. Wright).
Norfolk: Cley, 1st to 19th September (M. R. Alibone, P. Campbell, R. A.
Richardson et at.).
Scilly: St Agnes, 19th September (Miss E. Culwick, N. J. Phillips). St Mary’s,
two, 23rd September (A. R. Dean, P. D. Hyde et at.).
Shetland: Fair Isle, 21st September (R. A. Broad, D. J. Holman, N. Riddiford
et at.).
Somerset: Blagdon Reservoir, 15th to 21st September (A. H. Davis, K. E. Vini-
combe et at.). Steart, 25th September to 4th October (G. P. Threlfall, M. G. Wilson
et at.). Chew Valley Lake, 3rd October (D. Buffery).
Sussex: Camber, 6th September (DrJ. and Mrs M. J. Comyn).
(North America) Also one at Akeragh Lough, Co. Kerry, on 7th
September. Once again a remarkable influx, these 18 records involv-
ing about 23 birds being on a par with the totals for 1970 and 1971.
The first arrivals were most striking, the ten days from 31st August
producing birds in seven counties east to Sussex and Norfolk and north
to East Lothian. As in 1972 there was a late October record,
exceptional in recent years. About 150 individuals have now
been recorded in Britain and Ireland, and this has become the
second commonest Nearctic wader in western Europe (the Pectoral
Sandpiper C. melanotos being the most frequent). Once again the
backcloth of passage in North America in autumn 1973 is of signifi-
cance: at least 45 reached Atlantic Canada from 20th August, and a
similar number in the north-eastern United States in September
included one group of 1 8.
Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus
Dorset/Somerset: Sutton Bingham Reservoir, 5th and 6th September (A. Bundy,
B. J. Mathews, D. E. Pauli).
Durham: Washington, 25th May (B. Clasper, J. Perfitt, B. Unwin).
Norfolk: Cley, 28th to 31st May (W. E. Fletcher, D. Smallshire, M. Turton
et at.)-
Suffolk: Minsmere, 16th to 19th May, another 22nd May (H. E. Axell, P. J.
Makepeace, R. Pratt et at.).
(North Eurasia) Once, like the Great Snipe, dogged by con-
fusion with a common species and considered rare, the clouds over
325
Rare birds in Great Britain 1973
this wader seem to be dispersing. Five is the most ever in one year.
The May dates closely match those of 1972 (and those of Terek
Sandpipers in recent years). There have now been 22 since 1958
and about 46 altogether.
Black-winged Stilt Himanlopus himantopus
Surrey: Englefield Green, ioth October (S. G. Wilson).
(Southern Eurasia, Africa, Australasia and the Americas) This
highly specialised wader remains an erratic vagrant, not overshoot-
ing in the now regular manner of many Mediterranean species. This
is the 33rd record since 1958.
Wilson’s Phalarope Phalaropus tricolor
Lancashire: Freckleton, 4th to 9th October (M. Jones, H. Shorrock, P. H. Smith
et at.).
Norfolk: Cley, 21st October (A. G. Duff et at.).
Shetland: Lerwick, 14th to 21st September (D. Coutts, M. R. Lawn, G. Robertson
et at.).
Yorkshire: Spurn, 27th September (A. O. Aitken, B. R. Spence, R. A. Williams
el at.).
(North America) Four is now about the average. As in 1972, the
association of latitude and date suggests one or two birds moving
south through Britain; when the other American wader records are
considered however, all four could have been direct arrivals. Once
again the number reaching Atlantic North America was high. (It
may be noted here that Shetland was reached by four species of
Nearctic waders in 1973, a very unusual circumstance.)
Collared Pratincole Glareola pratincola
Caithness: Loch of Mcy, 4th August (S. Laybourne).
Cornwall: Hayle Kimbro, Lizard, 29th and 30th May (B. Cave).
Durham: Washington, 17th June (J. Perfitt et at.).
Glamorgan: Penclawdd, 27th May (R. J. and Mrs M. J. Howells).
Lincolnshire: Gibraltar Point, 21st May (K. Payne, R. B. Wilkinson).
Northamptonshire: Hollowell Reservoir, 14th May (C. J. Coe et at.).
Pratincole Glareola pratincola or G. nordmanni
Lancashire: Chapel Island, Ulverston, 19th August (C. Clapham, J. Sheldon).
(Collared in south Europe, south-west Asia and Africa; Black-
winged in south Russia and west Asia) After a year with no pratin-
coles at all, the Collared made a spirited return, with five over-
shooting in spring and one or two vagrants in August. The six
certain identifications of this species take the total since 1958 to 13
and the all-time total to not more than 44. Black-winged have num-
bered at least twelve (seven since 1958).
Rare birds in Great Britain igyj
326
Ivory Gull Pagophila eburnea
Caithness: Dunnet Bay, 18th to 23rd December (G. G. Bates, Mrs P. M. Collett,
S. Laybourne).
(Circumpolar Arctic) Although still irregular, this gull has
appeared in five out of the last seven years. There have now been
about 87 records for Britain and Ireland.
Ring-billed Gull Larus delawarensis
Glamorgan: Blackpill, adult, 14th to 31st March (M. Davies, R. A. Hume, P. G.
Lansdown et at.); immature, 3rd to 14th June (D. W. Evans, P. G. Lansdown,
K. E. Vinicombe et at.) ; adult, perhaps the March bird, 5th December to 2nd April
1974 (R. A. Hume, D. K. Thomas, K. E. Vinicombe et at.).
(North America) The first records of this close relative of the
Common Gull L. canus. Its occurrence had long been suspected, but
it took a small group of very painstaking observers to prove it.
Papers examining the problems of identification and detailing the
first two records have been published by P. J. Grant, R. A. Hume
and K. E. Vinicombe {Brit. Birds, 66: 115-118, 509-517).
Bonaparte’s Gull Larus Philadelphia
Sutherland: Scourie, immature, 7th June (R. W. Byrne, C. J. Mackenzie-Grieve).
Yorkshire: Flamborough Head, immature, 13th September (D. I. M. Wallace).
(North America) The Scourie bird takes the total of Scottish
records to four. The Yorkshire one, the second for that county,
appeared during a widespread influx of American waders. This
delightful small gull, in many ways the ecological sibling of the
Black-headed Gull L. ridibundus in North America, continues its
recent series of occurrences ; since 1 967 these have been annual and
have totalled 14 out of 28 in all.
White-winged Black Tern Chlidonias leucopterus
Aberdeenshire: Ythan estuary, 26th September (M. J. Grigson, A. Parker).
Anglesey: Llyn Maelog, 1st to 3rd July (D. M. F. Cooper).
Devon: Slapton Ley, immature, 25th to 30th September (T. F. Edwards et at.).
Essex: Walthamstow Reservoirs, immature, 27th August (J. Fitzpatrick).
Hampshire: Pennington Marshes, immature, 12th and 13th August (R. Dunn,
E. J. Wiseman et at.).
Kent: Stodmarsh, 31st May (J. N. Hollyer, P. and Mrs M. Larner). Harty, Isle of
Sheppey, immature, 18th and 25th to 30th August (C. E. Wheeler, R. V. White,
L. F. Woollard et at.). Dungeness, immature, 29th and 30th September (S. D.
Housden, K. Redshaw).
Lancashire: near Lancaster, 21st to 29th June (K. E. Hague, B. Townson).
Lincolnshire: Gibraltar Point, two 24th May (K. and Mrs D. E. Payne); 1st
September (T. Gill, K. and Mrs D. E. Payne et at.).
Norfolk: Cley, immature, 1st to 10th October (R. A. Richardson et at.).
Pembrokeshire: Gann estuary, immature, 31st August (K. J. S. Devonald).
Shetland: Fair Isle, 10th June (R. A. Broad, J. W. F. Davis, N. Riddiford).
327
Rare birds in Great Britain igyj
Somerset: Durleigh Reservoir, 19th September (R. H. Ryall).
Staffordshire: Blithfield Reservoir, 20th and 21st September (P. B. Taylor).
Sussex: Chichester gravel pits, 26th May and 1st June (E. T. W. Kemp, M.
Shrubb, Miss J. V. Stacey). Thorney Island, nth August (B. A. E. Marr, I. R.
Willis).
(South-east Europe, west and east Asia) (Omitted from the report
for 1971 was one at Castletownberehaven, Co. Cork, in May.)
Noticeably more than in 1972, and once again noticeably wide-
spread. These 19 birds bring the grand total for Britain and Ireland
to about 268. In the last two years, spring records have become
prominent.
Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybrida
Devon: Slapton Ley, 15th May (N. A. G. Bowden, M. R. Edmonds et at.).
Kent: Bough Beech Reservoir, 17th June (G. J. Harris, Mrs E. D. Parrinder).
Somerset: Chilton Trinity clay pit and Durleigh Reservoir, 12th to 14th May
(C. F. S. Avent, C. C. Davis, Miss E. M. Palmer et at.).
(South Eurasia, north-west, east and south Africa, and Australia)
Apart from an exceptional nine in 1970, this species has produced
one to three records in twelve of the 16 years from 1958 to 1973.
These three birds take the grand total to 52.
Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica
Devon: Slapton Ley, 9th August (M. R. Edmonds).
Durham: Greatham Creek, Tcesmouth, 21st June (G. D. Moore).
Kent: Sandwich and Pegwell Bays, r6th August (P. W. J. Findley, N. J. Langley).
Norfolk: Weybourne, 18th August (C. Johnson, L. Mulford, A. J. L. Smith et at.).
Northumberland: Beadnell, 30th June (J. Bacon).
(Denmark, south Europe, south Asia, north-west Africa, Australia
and the Americas) Five is above the recent average, and the grand
total moves to about 160. The incidence of both spring and autumn
records north of the East Anglian coast is increasing.
Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia
Glamorgan: Blackpill, 19th to 21st August (M. J. Charles, M. Davies, A. Parker
et at.).
Lancashire: Leighton Moss, 2nd to 10th August (P. Marsh, A. Pickup, J. Wilson
et at.).
Norfolk: Hickling, 31st July, two from 3rd to 8th August, one to 12th (Dr R.
Hornby, M. J. Seago).
Staffordshire: Cannock Chase Reservoir, 14th October (A. R. M. Blake).
Yorkshire: Bolton-on-Swale, 24th and 25th April (W. and Mrs E. Hallett, G. D.
Moore et at.). Bempton, 18th July (S. C. Madge).
(Baltic, south-east Europe, south-west and south-east Asia, Africa*
Australia and North America) Another average showing of this
huge tern The grand total now exceeds 100, 69 since 1958.
328 Rare birds in Great Britain 19J3
Rufous Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis
Cornwall: Lands End, 5th October (D. I. M. Wallace).
(Most of Asia, except far north) This is only the fourth ever.
A note on the occurrence is published on pages 352-354; it includes
comment on the possibility of confusion with the Turtle Dove S.
turtur.
Great Spotted Cuckoo Clamator glandarius
Cornwall: Gwithian, 27th May to 1st June (G. D. Dixon et at.) (plate 45b).
(South Europe, south-west Asia and Africa) The sixteenth record
for Britain and the latest of the nine in spring.
Yellow-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus americanus
Hampshire: Chewton Glen, Highcliffe, 20th October, found dead on 22nd (M.
Banks, R. Jones, M. J. Stewart et at.).
(North America) After two in 1971 and none in 1972 this record,
typically from the south coast and in late autumn, brings the grand
total to about 32.
Scops Owl Otus scops
Nottinghamshire: Bestwood, Nottingham, found 28th June, died later on same
day (Y. Collington, A. Dobbs, Mrs D. Forshaw et at.).
(South Europe, Russia, west Asia and north-west Africa) Only
the seventh since 1958, six of these since 1968, and about the 71st in
all.
Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca
Northumberland: North Tyne valley, 18th February to 16th March (W. M.
Barr, Dr and Mrs D. Johnson).
Outer Hebrides : a pair remaining from 1 972 [Brit. Birds, 66 : 344) stayed through-
out the year (locality withheld) (W. A. J. Cunningham et at.). Balranald, North
Uist, immature d> 17th May to 1st September (P. Coxon et at.).
Shetland: Fetlar, two pairs in January and February; two do and four $$ in
March and April; three or four in May; d mated to two $$: old $ laid five eggs
and hatched five young, two young were reared but one died in September; young
$ laid three eggs but deserted 12th to 14th June; two more arrived 6th June;
up to five in September, some to December (R. J. Tulloch et at.). Fair Isle, imma-
ture d> 26th March, adult d> 9th May (R. A. Broad et at.). Unst, 23rd April,
immature $ in May, two on 1st June, singles 2nd and 14th June ( per R. J. Tul-
loch). Noss, d> 22nd June (P. K. Kinnear). North Roe, 12th September [per R. J.
Tulloch).
(Circumpolar Arctic) This was the first year that two females
nested on Fetlar, but again breeding success was low. Elsewhere
the situation in the Outer Hebrides holds out the promise of further
breeding attempts.
Little Swift Apus affinis
Denbighshire: Llanrwst, picked up 6th November, kept overnight and released
7th (E. Griffiths).
329
Rare birds in Great Britain 1973
(Africa, Middle East and south Asia) This is the first of these
small swifts to reach Britain, though one was seen in Ireland at
Cape Clear Island, Co. Cork, in June 1967. Italy and Malta are the
only other European countries north of the African continent to
which this species is known to have strayed.
Alpine Swift Apus melba
Devon: Lundy, 22nd May to 1st June (J. N. Dymond, M. Rogers, A. M. Taylor
et at.) (plate 49a). Berry Head, 9th October (Dr L. A. and Mrs M. H. Collins).
Dorset: Portland Bill, 7th October (F. R. Clafton, W. E. Oddie, G. Walbridge
et at.).
Glamorgan: Lisvane Reservoir, 5th May (P. G. and Mrs C. M. Lansdown, G. L.
Roberts et at.).
Norfolk: Cley, 30th May (N. V. Allen, A. G. Duff, G. A. Miller).
Pembrokeshire: Ramsey Island, 14th to 25th May (I. J. Ferguson-Lecs, J. M.
Harrop, P. Hope Jones et at.).
Worcestershire: Upton Warren, 6th May (P. K. Dedicoat et at.).
Yorkshire: Knaresborough, 27th May (J. L. C. Gandy, J. R. Mather, P. T.
Treloar et at.).
(South Eurasia, north-west and east Africa) Also one at Great
Blasket Island, Co. Kerry, on 4th July. Nine is above the average
for this magnificent bird, and for six to occur in one spring month
is distinctly unusual; normally its dates show a remarkably random
scatter. It is possible that the October birds were one and the same.
There have now been 95 since 1958.
Bee-eater Merops apiaster
Cornwall: Relcath, Crowan, seven, 25th June (Reverend J. E. Beckerlcggc) ;
Gwinear, four, 28th June (R. G. Gendall).
Devon: Stoke Gabriel, four, 28th May (J. D. Wallis).
Dorset: Lodmoor, 25th June (P. Toynton).
Glamorgan: Mumbles, seven, 21st June (M. Davies, D. R. Waugh, D. Willis).
Hertfordshire: Stevenage, one, perhaps two, 29th June (P. J. Curry).
Lincolnshire: Gibraltar Point, two, 10th June (K. Payne, R. B. Wilkinson).
Norfolk: Winterton, two, 8th August (I. Loades).
Suffolk: Walberswick, found dead, 15th July (G. J. Jobson); 23rd August (C.
Kightley). Havergate, 8th August (T. Graven).
(South Europe, south-west Asia and north-west Africa) These
eleven records of at least 20 birds (depending on the degree of
duplication between the Cornish and Welsh parties) in eight
counties constitute the most striking influx ever of this beautiful
insectivore. Four records per year has been the recent average and
in 1972 there were only two (involving three individuals). The
eleven or more birds in June arrived significantly later than other
southern species, suggesting that they came not as overshooting
migrants but as displaced breeders. The three August records (of
330
Rare birds in Great Britain igj3
four birds) may likewise indicate continuing displacement in
northern latitudes. Altogether about 240 Bee-eaters are known to
have reached Britain and Ireland (over one in three since 1958).
Roller Coracias garrulus
Argyll: Loch Eck, immature, 15th October (T. W. Haynes).
Caithness: Reay, immature, 26th to 30th September (A. F. C. M. and Mrs P. M.
Collett, Mr Rowntree).
Norfolk: East Wretham Heath, 27th May (R. A. Hoblyn); Weeting, 28th May
(R. P. Bosanquet, P. Naylor, N. J. Redman et at.). Wells, 8th to 14th August
(P. R. Banham).
(South and east Europe, west Asia and north-west Africa) After
only one in the previous two years, these four constitute a welcome
return to form. The spring bird appeared during the marked influx
of Red-footed Falcons (pages 318-319). The total is now about 176.
Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea
Midlothian: Musselburgh Lagoons, 16th September (Dr L. L. J. Vick).
Shetland: Fair Isle, 6th to 8th May (R. A. Broad, J. W. F. Davis, N. Riddiford
et at.); trapped, 27th September to 5th October, two on 6th, three on 7th, two on
8th, one staying to 13th October (G. J. Barnes, R. A. Broad, N. Riddiford et at.).
Out Skerries, 4th to 10th October (I. S. Robertson et at.).
Somerset: Brean Down, 1 6th June (R. Angles).
Yorkshire: Spurn, 21st September (A. O. Aitken, J. Colmans, R. A. Williams
et at.).
(South Eurasia, north and east Africa) This small, rather
finch-like lark has been appearing in larger numbers since 1967.
In the last seven years at least 72 individuals have been recorded
and there have been more than twice as many in autumn as in
spring. The absence from Scilly is surprising, since it occurred there
annually from 1967 to 1972.
Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica
Dorset: Portland Bill, 29th July (J. A. Lucas, G. Walbridge).
Glamorgan: Eglwys Nunydd Reservoir, 15th August (P. G. Lansdown).
Hampshire: Hengistbury Head, 12th September (C. I. Husband).
Kent: Stodmarsh, 5th May (D. A. Newson, J. W. T. Reaney, F. A. Sutton et at.).
(South and east Eurasia, and Africa) For autumn records to out-
number spring ones is unusual. Significantly, there has been no
break in consecutive annual occurrences since 1963, whereas prior
to that year there had been only nine records ever. The grand total
is now 36.
Short-toed Treecreeper Certhia brachydactyla
(Continental Europe south of Baltic, also Asia Minor and north-
west Africa) We are still without entirely trustworthy criteria
Rare birds in Great Britain igy3 331
for the separation of this species from the Treecreeper C. familiaris,
despite much recent research by workers both in Britain and on the
Continent (see, e.g., J. Orn., 1 1 3 : 287-295; Vogelwelt, 93: 20 1-2 15).
The apparent overlaps in plumage, voice and measurements of the
two are truly daunting. Again we ask observers and ringers to take
the greatest care with their descriptions of odd treecreepers and
must stress in particular the importance of comparative study.
White’s Thrush Zoothera dauma
Shetland: Fair Isle, immature, trapped, 24th and 25th September (R. A. Broad,
R. Dewey, T. Loseby et at.).
(Central, east and south-east Asia and Australasia) Although
the sixth on Fair Isle, this is no more than the 35th recorded in
Britain and Ireland (and only the sixth since 1958). It is another
species whose occurrence pattern has not changed in spite of the
greatly increased coverage and mass rarity-searching of recent years.
Black-eared Wheatear Oenanthe hispanica
(South Europe, south-west Asia and north-west Africa) None in
Britain, but one at Great Blasket Island, Co. Kerry, on 14th August
is the second Irish record. The grand total now stands at 25.
Thrush Nightingale Luscinia luscinia
Shetland: Fair Isle, trapped, 21st May (P. Agland, R. A. Broad, N. Riddiford
el at.); trapped, 25th to 27th May (D. Bell, R. A. Broad, N. Riddiford el at.);
trapped, 1st to 3rd June (R. A. Broad, R. A. Richardson, N. Riddiford et at.).
(Scandinavia, east Europe and west Asia) Three more displaced
members of the southern Scandinavian population bring the all-
time total to 22. In spite of the fact that its occurrences are mount-
ing— there had been only one before 1957 — this close relative of the
Nightingale L. megarhynchos is still irregular, having appeared in
consecutive years only twice. Yet all 18 spring records are contained
within 28 days, the mean date being 19th May.
Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti
Caernarvonshire: Bardsey, 26th to 30th October (D. Henshilwood, H. Miles).
Cornwall: Par, 28th March to 12th April (P. R. Marriott, C. J. Stevens et at.).
Kent : many records, including proved breeding at one locality, to be summarised
at a later date.
Suffolk: Minsmere, 22nd February to 24th April, 4th and 7th October (H. E.
Axell); two, 30th October to at least 18th February 1974 (A. Parker).
English south coast : singles seen from May to end of year and singles trapped
on 30th June, 27th July and 4th October (locality and names of observers with-
held).
(South and west Europe, south-west Asia and north-west Africa)
The colonisation of this robust species which began in earnest in
autumn 1971 continues, and a paper on this subject is in prepara-
332
Rare birds in Great Britain igy 3
tion. The far-flung records from Cornwall and north Wales compare
with those from Co. Cork in 1968 and from Yorkshire in 1972.
Lanceolated Warbler Locustella lanceolata
Shetland: Fair Isle, immature, trapped, 22nd September (N. V. Allen, R. A.
Broad, I. Burrows et at.). Out Skerries, 22nd September (I. S. Robertson).
(East Eurasia from central Russia to north Japan) These two
records closely match the one on Fair Isle in September 1972. Three
in two years is quite exceptional for this species which is an erratic
vagrant at best, with 15 records all told. Its congener Pallas’s
Grasshopper Warbler L. certhiola has now been unreported for 13
years, and unaccepted for 17.
Savi’s Warbler Locustella luscinioides
Devon: Braunton, 27th May to 24th June (I. Taylor, A. J. Vickery et at.).
Dorset: Radipole Lake, trapped, 20th August (L. Kearsley, G. Pepler et at.).
Kent: Stodmarsh, 20th April, up to three singing subsequently but no evidence of
breeding success (P. J. Mountford et at.). Seasalter, 29th April (B. Bundock).
Norfolk: Yare valley, singing d, nth to 15th May (Dr M. George, M. J. Seago).
Suffolk: Minsmere, first on 27th April, last on 5th August, six pairs probably
bred (H. E. Axell et at.). Walberswick, at least three singing from 28th April
to 22nd July (G. J. Jobson, C. S. Waller).
Yorkshire: Hornsea Mere, 16th and 17th August (D. T. Ireland, S. C. Madge).
Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus
Kent: Sandwich Bay, trapped, 5th May (D. M. Batchelor).
Yorkshire: Wilton, Redcar, trapped, 19th May (H. G. Burrows, G. W. Follows,
S. C. Norman et at.).
(Europe and west-cental Asia) Another poor showing by a
species which only a few years ago many thought of as a potential
breeding bird. Two is the fewest in any year since 1967. Notes on
the identification of this species and the similar Clamorous Reed
Warbler A. stentoreus, and comments on the possibility of confusion
of vagrants, were published in Brit. Birds , 66: 382-385.
Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola
Cornwall: Marazion Marsh, adult, 17th August (R. Higson, N. J. Phillips et at.) ;
immature, trapped, 18th (I. Macmillan, B. Pattenden) ; two immatures 26th and
27th, adult and two immatures 5th September (R. Higson, N. J. Phillips et al.);
7th September (B. S. Cave, C. D. Ingram).
Devon: Lundy, 10th and 1 ith August (J. N. Dymond, M. Rogers). Exe reedbeds,
immature, trapped, 16th August (F. R. Smith). South Milton Ley, single imma-
tures trapped, 27th August, xoth to 20th September, and i6thand 17th September;
four seen together on 19th September including at least one of the ringed birds
(R. Burridge et al.).
Dorset: Radipole Lake, 16 immatures trapped — singles on 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th,
17th, 20th, 24th, 25th, 26th, 27th and 31st August, three on 5th September,
singles on nth and 18th September (J. Oakshatt, G. Pepler et al.).
333
Rare birds in Great Britain 1973
Essex: Two-trec Island, Leigh-on-Sea, 23rd September (A. R. M. Blake).
Glamorgan: Kenfig Pool, 8th and 9th September (M. Davies, P. G. Lansdown,
D. K. Thomas et at.).
Hampshire: Farlington Marshes, adult and two immatures trapped, perhaps
another seen, 1 ith August (J. D. and N. J. Lindsay, J. H. Marchant et at.); three
immatures trapped 12th, single immatures trapped 19th, 9th and 10th September
(A. N. Williamson et at.). Pennington Marshes, 30th August (R. Dunn, E. J.
Wiseman).
Somerset: Berrow Marsh, two, 26th August (B. E. Slade). Steart, two immatures
trapped 26th August, one immature trapped 27th August (A. W. Evans).
Sussex: Pagham Harbour, 30th August (P. Hawes, I. B. Roy).
Yorkshire: Spurn, immature, trapped, 12th August (J. Cudworth, B. R. Spence
et at.).
(East Europe and west Asia) Also one on Cape Clear Island, Co.
Cork, on 14th and 15th October, the first recorded in Ireland since
1961. At least 48, all but three of those aged being immatures, fol-
lowed in the flight path of the record 56 in 1972. Clearly a real
change in occurrence frequency is being maintained, but, unlike
previous years, in 1973 all the British records were contained
between 10th August and 23rd September and there was only the
Irish straggler in October. Altogether over 300 have been recorded
(half since 1968 when the change was first apparent).
Sardinian Warbler Sylvia melanocephala
Kent: Dungcness, $?, trapped, 17th April (K. Redshaw, R. E. Scott et at.).
Norfolk: Waxham, <$, trapped, 28th and 29th April (Dr E. L. Williams).
(South Europe, Middle East and North Africa) Two surprising
and isolated occurrences, only the fourth and fifth for Britain,
including the first female. There were no records of sympatric
species (such as the Subalpine Warbler S. cantillans, which appeared
every year from 1966 to 1972).
Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides
Devon: Lundy, trapped, 22nd June (J. N. Dymond, M. Rogers).
Shetland: Fair Isle, trapped, 24th June (G. J. Barnes, R. A. Broad, N. Riddiford
et at.); trapped, 4th to 8th July (G. J. Barnes, R. A. Broad, J. W. F. Davies et at.).
Yorkshire: Redcar, 23rd and 24th August (A. J. Wheeldon et at.).
(Eurasia from south Finland and north Germany to Kamchatka)
The June and July occurrences are indicative of birds that had well
overshot their normal range and no doubt relate to the recent spread
of this species in northern Europe. The grand total moves on to 89.
Since 1958 seven (out of 77) have been in spring or early summer.
Bonelli’s Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli
Scilly: St Agnes, 12th to 15th September (M. A. Brazil, D. B. Hunt, T. A. Walsh
el at.).
334
Rare birds in Great Britain igyj
Sussex: Alfriston, 7th August (P. J. and Mrs V. A. Wilson).
(Central and south Europe, Levant and north-west Africa)
Another two typical autumn records take the grand total to 37.
Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis
Northumberland: Brownsman, Fame Islands, 16th to 18th September (G.
Clarke, R. Gomes, C. Slater et at.).
Shetland: Fair Isle, immature, trapped, 4th September (R. A. Broad, N. Riddi-
ford et at.); immature, trapped, 10th September (G. J. Armstrong, R. A. Broad,
P. F. Fawkes et at.). Lunna, near Vidlin, 17th September (Dr B. Marshall).
(North-east Europe, north Asia and Alaska) The divergence in
the occurrence patterns of this species and its close relative the
Greenish Warbler becomes clearer as the years pass. It has yet to
appear in spring or early summer, but young birds reach Shetland
in early or mid-autumn every year and occur rarely but widely on
the east, south and west coasts of Britain up to late October. The
grand total for Britain and Ireland is now about 77. Only three
have reached Ireland, whereas that country’s catch of Greenish
Warblers is 21.
Radde’s Warbler Phylloscopus schwarzi
Scilly: St Agnes, 13th October (A. J. Greenland R. E. Turley, D. I. M. Wallace
et at.) ; 22nd to 26th October (R. H. Charlwood, A. Quinn et at.).
(Central and east Asia) Appearing on the same isle as the last
British bird in 1971, these two led their observers a most frustrating
dance. It has been suggested that there was only one extremely
skulking individual, but it seems certain that different birds were
involved, the first being seen on only one day and the second
being much browner with cleaner head marks. They are the twelfth
and thirteenth for Britain; none has yet reached Ireland.
Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris
Cornwall: Porthgwarra, 15th September (H. P. K. Robinson et at.).
Devon: Slapton Ley, 7th September (D. Elphick, A. K. Searle, E. C. Still).
Dorset: Portland Bill, 23rd August (D. Brotheridge, G. L. and M. G. Webber);
trapped, 9th September (F. R. Clafton, G. Walbridge et at.).
Hampshire: St Catherine’s Point, Isle of Wight, 23rd April (J. K. Bowers).
Kent: Stodmarsh, 6th and 7th May (P. J. and M. Mountford).
Norfolk: Cley, 2nd July (S. D. Housden).
Scilly: St Mary’s, 7th September (I. J. and M. G. Ibbotson) ; total of four, 10th to
15th October (B. Bland, B. D. Harding, P. J. Milford et at.); one, 16th October
(R. E. Emmett, G. J. Jobson, D. I. M. Wallace et at.). St Agnes, 19th September
(Miss E. Culwick, N. J. Phillips). Tresco, 17th October (R. J. B. Jackson).
Shetland: Out Skerries, 22nd September (I. S. and Mrs S. Robertson).
Somerset: Steart, 4th October (B. Rabbitts).
Sussex: Arlington Reservoir, 6th August (P. J. Wilson). Beachy Head, 30th
August, four (three trapped) 7th to 10th October, one nth and 12th, one 15th to
Plate 45. Above, immature Night Heron .\vcticorax nvctuorax. Lincolnshire.
November 1973, one of two found in the eastern half of England in the middle of
that month (page 315) (photo: Keith Atkin). Below, Great Spotted Cuckoo Clama-
tor glandarius, Cornwall, May 1973 (page 3-ift {photo: J. H. and .S’. Hot torn ley
Plate 46. Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolnpaceus, Cornwall, October 1973
(page 321): very long bill (twice as long as head) and much greater width of
dark bars than of intervening pale ones on uppertail help to distinguish this
species from the very similar Short-billed Dowitcher L. griseus ( photos : J. B.
and S. Bottomley) ; compare with plate opposite and those cited in the caption
■"3 '
Plate 47. Another Long-billed Dowitcher, Somerset, also October 1973: here
the dark tail bars appear narrower, though still wider than the white ones, and
the dark arrowheads on the undertail show well (photos : B. II'. Thomas). Dowitcher
identification was discussed in detail in this journal by Dr I. C. T. Nisbet
(54: 343-357, plates 55-58) and D. I. M. Wallace (61: 366-37J. plates 43-47
Plates 48 ( centre pages ) and 49. More rare birds photographed in Britain in 1973.
Previous pages, drake Steller’s Eider Polyslicla stelleri in eclipse, facing away
from group of two adult and four young Eiders Somateria mollissima, Outer
Hebrides, August (page 317) ; this bird was found in May 1972 and was still pre-
sent at the same place in June 1974 [photo: Pamela Harrison ). Above left, Alpine
Swift Apus melba, Lundy, Devon, May (page 329) [photo : M. Rogers ) ; right, White-
lumped Sandpiper Calidris fuscicollis, Suffolk, July (page 323) [photo: C. R. JVaun-
ton). Below, Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis, Flintshire, October
(page 324), photographed in the same field and on the same day as the Sharp-
tailed Sandpiper C. acuminata shown in plate 50 opposite [photo: Dennis Green)
k 50. Sharp-tailccl Sandpiper Calidris acu-
, Flintshire, October 197;} (pages 3:23,
note sharp contrast between dark
crown (lightly streaked rufous) and
supercilium, with dark patch behind eye,
aint collar of fine striations on ochre-
reast (compare with Pectoral Sandpipers
1 lanotos overleaf) ( photos : Dennis Green)
Plate 51. Pectoral Sandpipers Calidris melanolos, Cornwall, September 1967
(above) and October 1968 (below). Records of this American wader are no longer
considered by the Rarities Committee, but these photographs provide a useful
comparison with the Sharp-tailed on plate 50 ( photos : J. B. and S'. Boltomley )
Rare birds in Great Britain igy3 335
17th (R. H. Charlwood, J. F. Cooper, A. Quinn et at.); 22nd September (J. A.
Lucas); 28th October (R. F. Porter, I. R. Willis).
(Europe, south Asia and north-west Africa) Also one on Great
Saltee, Co. Wexford, on 20th May. Another 26 or so birds in an
influx similar in scale to that of 1972. Records were more markedly
concentrated in Scilly and Sussex than in most recent years, some
ten appearing during 7th- 17th October. Another midsummer
record is noteworthy. With about 275 since 1958, this is currently
the commonest ‘rarity’ that we monitor.
Olive-backed Pipit Anthvs hodgsoni
Shetland: Fair Isle, 24th September (G. J. Jobson).
(North-east Russia, central and east Asia) The third record for
Fair Isle and the fourth for Britain. The centre of the breeding
range is a good 7,000 km from Britain. Like the largely sympatric
Pechora Pipit A. gustavi, it appears generally earlier than its most
frequent Asiatic congener, Richard’s Pipit A. novaeseelandiae .
Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus
Devon: Lundy, 31st October to 2nd November (J. N. Dymond).
Norfolk: Kelling Quags, 19th and 20th May (A. J. L. Smith et at.).
Scilly: St Mary’s, 1 ith October (D. S. Flumm, B. Mellor, M. J. Rogers). St Agnes,
14th October (A. J. Greenland, R. E. Turley, D. I. M. Wallace el at.).
Shetland: Fair Isle, 28th May to 2nd June, another 30th May to 2nd June (P.
Agland, G. J. Barnes, R. A. Broad et at.); 16th to 18th September (G. J. Barnes,
T. Lawrence, D. Willis).
Somerset: Blagdon Reservoir, 24th September (R. M. Curbcr, M. G. Wilson).
Sussex: Beachy Head, 6th October (J. F. Cooper).
(Arctic Eurasia) The best ever showing of this species. The grand
total for Britain and Ireland is now 87.
Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola
Shetland: Out Skerries, immature, 20th to 23rd September (I. S. and Mrs S.
Robertson, R. J. Tulloch et at.).
(East Russia and west-central Asia) The eleventh in Shetland,
and the eighteenth in all. The September date is typical, the
occurrence pattern of this fine wagtail generally resembling those
of the two rarest Asiatic pipits, the Olive-backed and Pechora (see
above) .
Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor
Angus: Montrose Basin, 3rd to 19th July (Mrs V. A. Black, G. M. Crighton et at.) .
Hampshire: Portsdovvn Hill, Portsmouth, adult, 15th July (N. B. Ansell).
Norfolk: Holme, 27th May (P. R. Clarke, H. Ramsay).
Suffolk: Blythburgh, iothjunc (C. L. Clarke, J. D. Shackles, C. S. Waller et al. ) .
Surrey: Haslemere, immature 9, found dying, 18th November (D. Parr).
336 Rare birds in Great Britain 1973
Sussex: Sidlesham, immature, 6th September (M. and Mrs V. Shrubb).
(South and east Europe and south-west Asia) This is the most
southern and rarest of British shrikes; six were also recorded in
1961 and 1970 but have never been exceeded. The wide scatter of
places and dates is characteristic, though the Surrey bird was
exceptionally late. The grand total moves on to about 86.
Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator
Cornwall: Porthgwarra, immature, 25th to 28th August (H. P. K. Robinson,
L. P. Williams et at.); immature, 7th and 8th September (C. D. Ingram, H. P. K.
Robinson et at.).
Devon: Lundy, $, trapped, 18th May (J. N. Dymond, Mr and MrsJ. M. Dymond
et at.) 1 $, 26th June (J. N. Dymond, M. Rogers, A. M. Taylor); immature, 23rd
August (J. N. Dymond, Miss D. B. Ogden, M. Rogers).
Dorset: Portland Bill, immature, trapped, 2 1st August (G. Gregory, G. Walbridge,
G. L. Webber) ; immature, 6th to 12th October (F. R. Clafton, W. E. Oddie et al.).
Pembrokeshire: Skomer Island, $, 26th May (J. E. Davis et al.).
Shetland: Virkie, 20th May (D. Coutts, Sir R. Erskine-Hill, F. Hunter).
Suffolk: Halesworth, 26th May (R. W. H. Garner).
Surrey: East Ewell, found dead, 1 ith May (Mr and Mrs Panting et al.).
Yorkshire: Easington, 29th and 30th August (B. Banson, J. Fitzharris, J. Lidgate
et al.).
(West and central Europe, south-west Asia and north-west Africa)
A near-average showing, though the incidence of autumn immatures
is unusually high. The grand total is now about 305.
Rose-coloured Starling Sturnus roseus
Caernarvonshire: Aberdaron, 28th June (R. S. and Mrs M. E. Thomas).
Durham: Billingham, 27th to 30th June (Mr and MrsJ. W. Blick, S. P. Moses).
Lincolnshire: Wainfleet, immature ?, trapped, 18th October (W. M. Peet, R. B.
Wilkinson).
Midlothian: Penicuik, 29th June (N. A. Ruckley).
Shetland: Bigton, about 20th to 24th May (D. Coutts, L. Dalziel, Sir R. Erskine-
Hill et al.).
(South-east Europe and south-west Asia) Five is above the
average. For comments on the escape likelihood in this and other
rarities, readers are referred to the recent paper by M. D. England
{Brit. Birds, 67: 177-197).
Myrtle Warbler Dendroica coronata
Scilly: Tresco, 16th to 23rd October (D. B. Hunt, D. I. M. Wallace et al.).
(North America) The fourth in all and the first since 1968, the
last year in which American passerines were obvious. Many observers
have felt that the decline in direct transatlantic liner traffic would
extinguish the series of British and Irish records of wood warblers
(Parulidae). There was none in 1969, only two in 1970 and again
none in 1971 and 1972; thus the appearance of this beautiful
Rare birds in Great Britain igyj 337
flycatching sprite and of the first live Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus
in Europe (see below) was very much against the trend.
Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus
Shetland: Out Skerries, trapped, 7th and 8th October (I. S. and Mrs S. Robert-
son, R. J. Tulloch et at.).
(North America) A wing of this species was found on the Lanca-
shire coast in January 1969 (Brit. Birds , 63: 289), but the above is
the first acceptable record of a live bird for Britain and Europe. This
American warbler is a partly sympatric congener of the Northern
Waterthrush S. noveboracensis which has been recorded twice in
Britain and once in France.
Serin Serinus serinus
Dorset: Bincleaves, Weymouth, 10th May (R. A. Ford). Portland Bill, <J, 24th
July (J. A. Lucas, G. Walbridge); 29th October (P. Brown, M. C. Cooper, D. M.
Hawker).
Hertfordshire: Hilfield, Bushey, 21st March (R. Curtis, M. G. Wells).
Kent: Dungeness, i8thjunc, 10th July (K. Redshaw).
Lancashire: Chorlton-cum-Hardy, immature <$, trapped, 9th March C.
McPherson, J. Shakeshaft, I. D. Walker et at.).
Lincolnshire: Donna Nook, 5th September (S. Lorand).
Pembrokeshire: Strumble Head, 10th April (J. W. Donovan).
Suffolk: Blythburgh, 12th May (A. J. L. Smith).
Sussex: Bcachy Head, $, 20th and 24th April (R. H. and Mrs M. E. Charlwood) ;
two, 5th May (J. F. Cooper).
(Continental Europe, Mediterranean, Asia Minor and north-
west Africa) The records up to 1970 were discussed in Brit. Birds ,
64: 213-223. Unless, as we suspect, a proportion of reports are not
submitted to us, it may be that this lively little finch is becoming
less frequent. Regular breeding has not been proved, and in the year
under review there were no long stays anywhere. Spring males
appear to have predominated for the past three years.
Scarlet Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus
Devon: Lundy, one, perhaps two, 27th September (J. N. Dvmond, D. E. Reid, M.
Rogers et at.).
Dorset: Portland Bill, 15th September (L. Mulford, A. J. L. Smith, G. Walbridge
et at.).
Norfolk: Blakeney Point, 19th and 20th August (J. C. Eaton, D. J. Holman.
N. Williams et at.).
Northumberland: Brownsman, Fame Islands, 14th September (R. Gomes. C-
Slater). Bamburgh, trapped, 6th October (M. Bell, M. S. Hodgson).
Shetland: Sumburgh, 19th May (Dr B. Marshall). Tolob, 20th May (D.
Coutts); 27th August (Dr B. Marshall). Yirkie, (J. 20th and 21st May (D. Coutts.
Rare birds in Great Britain
338
*973
F. Hunter, Dr B. Marshall et at.); another <$, 22nd May (D. Coutts); one 12th
September, three 14th September (D. Coutts). Fair Isle, 22nd May to 1st June;
trapped, 22nd to 25th June; 23rd to 26th August, two 27th, three 28th, two 29th
to 31st, three 1st to 5th September, one to 9th, five 10th, six 1 ith to 15th, two 16th
and 17th, three 18th to 22nd, one 23rd September — at least eleven individuals in
autumn, all immature or $ and four ringed (R. A. Broad, N. Riddiford et at.).
Durigarth, (J, 23rd May (L. Brown, D. Coutts, Sir R. Erskine-Hill). Scalloway,
d, 23rd and 24th May (A. D. J. Cook, C. D. Ingram). Out Skerries, $>, i8thjune
(Mrs S. Robertson); three 25th August, one 28th, two 1st to 5th September, one
9th and 10th September (I. S. Robertson). Whalsay, 26th August, 12th September
(J. H. Simpson). Foula, 30th and 31st August (R. Furness).
Yorkshire: Spurn, trapped, nth September (B. R. Spence et at.); 14th and 15th
(A. O. Aitken, S. L. James, R. A. Williams et at.); trapped, 23rd September and
1 2th October (B. R. Spence et at.); 21st October (J. Cudworth).
(East Europe and across Asia, and east Turkey to Himalayas)
Another 40 or more to add to the recent flood. Almost one in four
appeared in Shetland in spring, and occurrences at that season are
now growing fast : since 1 963 there have been 35 spring records and
this species must now be regarded as a double passage migrant in
Shetland. The change in the status of this once ‘Fair Isle only’
finch is so interesting that we tabulate below the occurrences since
1958. Spring arrivals have been dated from 30th April to 22nd
June, autumn ones from 27th July to 23th October.
Table 1. Number of Scarlet Rosefinches Carpodacus erythrinus recorded
during 1958-73, showing increasing frequency and widening periods of
occurrence
Month
1958-62
1963-67
1968-72
1973
1958-73
January
—
—
—
—
—
February
-
-
I
-
I
March
-
—
—
—
-
April
-
-
I
-
I
May
-
3
I I
7
21
June
-
4
7
2
13
July
-
-
I
-
I
August
8
6
19
10
43
September
20
38
59
18
135
October
4
8
14
3
29
November
—
—
—
—
-
December
-
-
-
-
-
TOTALS
32
59
”3
40
244
Annual means
6
12
23
40
15
Two-barred Crossbill Loxia leucoptera
Inverness-shire: Dores, 4th April (Miss A. M. Paterson).
Shropshire: Blakeridge, Colebatch, <J, 30th January to 3rd February (L.
Durtnall); probably the Walcot bird of November 1972 (see page 343).
(North-east Europe, north-central Asia, northern North America
Rare birds in Great Britain 1973 339
and West Indies) At least one more to add to the 15 from 1966 to
1972, bringing the grand total to 60 or more.
1 Black-headed Bunting Etnberiza melanocephala
I Kent : Reculver, (J, 19th August (J. and M. J. Palmer, J. G. Walmsley).
, $ Scilly : St Agnes and Gugh, (J, 1 6th to 19th May (O. B. and Mrs K. Parker, Miss J.
Spcnlove-Spenlove) .
| ! Shetland: Fair Isle, immature or ?, 21st to 26th August (R. A. Broad, N. Riddi-
ford, D. Woodward et at.). Fetlar, cj, 21st to 30th September (R. H. F. Thorne).
(South-east Europe and south-west Asia) Four in one year is the
most ever and for three of the records to be in autumn is also
unusual. The grand total is now about 35.
Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola
Caernarvonshire: Bardsey Island, $, trapped, 4th and 5th September (D.
Henshilwood, C. Prescott, T. Squire et at.).
Shetland: Out Skerries, 9th to nth September (Dr B. Marshall, I. S. Robertson,
J. H. Simpson et at.). Fair Isle, 13th and 14th September (R. A. Broad, R. Filby,
M. Lawley et at.); 17th to 22nd September (R. A. Broad, D. J. Holman, N.
Riddiford et at.). All immature or $.
(North-east Europe and north Asia) Once again a strong showing
of a bunting which normally migrates south-east from its breeding
grounds. These four bring the total during 1966-73 to 24 and the
grand total to 44; thus over half have come in the last eight years,
a trend closely comparable to that of the Scarlet Rosefinch which
is sympatric in Europe.
Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica
Shetland: Fair Isle, immature or $, 19th to 29th September (N. Allen, R. A.
Broad, I. Burrows et al.).
(North-east Europe and north Asia) After the seven records
from five counties from Scilly to Shetland in 1972, this single
record is more typical in locality (and number). This remains one
of the rarest buntings on the British and Irish list.
Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla
Scilly: St Mary’s, 7th October (T. Francis et al.). St Agnes, 27th October (P.
Clement, A. Quinn).
Shetland: Out Skerries, 8th May (D. Coutts, I. S. Robertson, R. J. Tulloch et al.) ;
22nd September (I. S. Robertson). Upper Kergord, 13th and 14th May (Dr B.
Marshall et al.). Fair Isle, 24th September, two 25th and 26th, one staying to 30th
September (G. J. Barnes, R. A. Broad, N. Riddiford et al.); 15th October (G. J.
Barnes).
(North-east Europe and north Asia) Also one on Cape Clear
Island, Co. Cork, from nth to 17th October. Like the Rustic, this
bunting retreated to island archipelagos in 1973 following a wider
occurrence pattern the previous year. The two May birds were the
first in spring since 1962. The grand total moves on to about 175.
'
340
Rare birds in Great Britain igyj
White-throated Sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis
Shetland: OutSkerries, 5th to 1 5th May (D. Coutts, I. S. Robertson, R. J. Tulloch
et at.).
(North America) This is the third North American passerine of
1973 and the least surprising. It is a robust species that has reached
Britain and Ireland ten times before.
Amendment to the 1967 report
White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii
Cornwall: Marazion, the last date should read 26th April.
Amendment to the 1972 report
Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola
Dorset: Radipole Lake, 26th September (P. J. Curry, J. Williamson) (Brit. Birds,
66: 348) was not trapped.
Supplementary 1962 record accepted
White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii
Yorkshire: Tunstall, adult ?, found dead, 18th March (B. S. Pashby, A. H.
Rider) ; specimen at Hull Museum.
Supplementary 1964 record accepted
White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii
Shetland: Fetlar, first-summer, 6th June (Mr and Mrs L. Roberts). This record,
previously rejected, has been accepted after reconsideration.
Supplementary 1965 records accepted
White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii
Fife: Earlsferry, adult, found dead, ist January (G. Waterston, Dr R. S. Weir
et at.) ; head in Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh.
Baird’s Sandpiper Calidris bairdii
Cornwall: Marazion Marsh, 20th and 21st October (P. J. Dare, R. G. Haddon).
This record, previously rejected (Brit. Birds, 59: 302), has been accepted after
reconsideration.
34i
Rare birds in Great Britain IQJ3
Supplementary 1966 records accepted
White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii
Northumberland: Budle Bay, adult, found dead, 24th April (C. E. Douglas);
skull held by observer.
Yorkshire: Robin Hood’s Bay, adult $, found dying 15th February, died 16th
(C. J. Feare per J. R. Mather); specimen in collection ofj. R. Mather.
Supplementary 1967 record accepted
Red-footed Falcon Falco vesper tinus
Warwickshire: Middleton, 14th and 21st May (G. A. Arnold, D. Smallshire
et at.).
Supplementary 1969 records accepted
White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii
Aberdeenshire: Aberdeen, adult, found dead, 24th March (DrJ. J. D. Green-
wood, Dr B. B. Rae, per D. M. Burn); specimen at British Museum, Tring.
Shetland: Whalsay, adult in breeding plumage, 4th to 7th May (W. Arthur, J. H.
Simpson).
Yorkshire: Filey, adult $, found dead, 1st March (R. H. Appleby per J. R.
Mather) ; specimen in collection of J. R. Mather.
Supplementary 1970 records accepted
White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii
East Lothian: Gullane Point, first-winter, found dead, 16th January (R. K.
MacGregor) ; skull and wing held by observer.
Morayshire: Findhorn, adult, found dead, ist February (B. Etheridge); head
and wing temporarily at Liverpool Museums.
Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusilla
Scilly: Tresco, 27th September (L. P. Mulford, T. Sibley, A. J. L. Smith et at.).
(North America) This is the first record of this difficult species
to be accepted in the light of the new criteria established by D. I. M.
Wallace (Brit. Birds, 67: 1-16, plates 2-3).
Supplementary 1971 records accepted
White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii
Ross-shirc: Upper Loch Torridon, adult in breeding plumage, 6th to 22nd June
(R. H. Dennis, P. J. Tizzard, Mrs J. A. Whyte et at.).
Shetland: Fair Isle, adult in breeding plumage, 29th May (J. H. Simpson).
342 Rare birds in Great Britain igyj
Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti
Suffolk: Minsmere, singing 29th March to 1 8th June (H. E. Axell).
Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris
Kent: Sandwich Bay, 9th May (J. N. Hollyer).
(Europe, south Asia and north-west Africa) This takes the total
of 1971 records to at least 33 — an all-time peak.
Trumpeter Finch Rhodopechys githaginea
Suffolk: Minsmere, 30th May to 15th June (F. K. Cobb, D. J. Holman et at.).
Sutherland: Handa Island, 8th and 9th June (C. R. and Mrs J. M. Tubbs).
(South-east Spain, Canary Islands, northern Africa and south-
west Asia) The first accepted records for Britain and Ireland. Full
details will be published in due course.
Supplementary 1972 records accepted
White-billed Diver Gama adamsii
Banffshire: Buckie, adult, 14th March to 20th May (R. H. Dennis, R. Leavett,
D. B. McGinn el at.).
Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophris
Shetland: Hermaness, Unst, 21st July to 4th August (M. Anderson, L. R. Cole).
(Southern oceans) A second record for the year, though this may
well have been the same bird as that seen off Fife on 8th August
{Brit. Birds, 66: 333).
Purple Heron Ardea purpurea
Hertfordshire: Rye Meads, 2nd September to 3rd October (P. Martin et at.).
(South-central Eurasia, north to Netherlands, and Africa)
Another autumn occurrence to add to the five already noted for 1972.
Little Egret Egretta garzetta
Norfolk: Breydon Water, 4th to 8th May (P. R. Allard et at.). Holme, 28th May
to 5th June (P. R. Clarke et at.).
(South Eurasia, Africa and Australia) Two to add to the 13
already published for 1972 ; both are clearly linked to the remarkable
series at Cley where at least four arrived between 30th April and
2nd June {Brit. Birds, 66: 335).
Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus
Berkshire: Padworth, $, 18th and 19th April (D. Ellis, K. Pritchard).
Dorset: Radipole Lake, J, 23rd to 25th April (D. N. Arnold et at.).
343
Rare birds in Great Britain 1973
White Stork Ciconia ciconia
Somerset: Rode, 14th July (C. Cook), additional to the Danish White Stork
taken into captivity in autumn 1971 and released about 18th August 1972 (see
Brit. Birds, 65: 4-5, 303-305.327; 66: 336).
Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus
Shetland: Scousburgh, 14th to 19th December (A. Anderson). Dale, Walls, 15th
December (per D. Coutts). Ulsta, Yell, 22nd December (R. J. Tulloch).
(Circumpolar Arctic) These three winter records are quite
separate from the spring influx in 1972 which mainly affected
southern counties of England.
Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus
Norfolk: Salthouse, 25th August (M. Woodcock).
Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti
Dorset: Radipole Lake, 21st October (C. Bignal, M. R. Shepherd).
Suffolk: Minsmere, 14th to 23rd March (H. E. Axell, P. J. Makepeace).
(South and west Europe, south-west Asia and north-west Africa)
The seventh and eighth localities (fifth and sixth counties) with
a record of this species in 1972.
Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola
Somerset: Chew Valley Lake, trapped, 20th August (R. J. Prytherch, F. R.
Smith, K. Standring).
Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis
Shetland: Grutncss, 27th September; Loch Spiggie, 29th September; Spiggie.
Bigton, 29th September (Sir R. Erskine-Hill et at.).
(North-east Europe, north Asia and Alaska) These additional re-
cords mean that at least five of this robust Phylloscopus reached
Shetland in the nine days from 24th September — a concentration
paralleling the influx of five Greenish Warblers to Norfolk a month
earlier {Brit. Birds, 66: 349).
Pallas’s Warbler Phylloscopus proregulus
Norfolk: Holme, trapped, 17th to 19th October (P. R. Clarke).
(Central, east and south-east Asia) This brings the grand total
in Britain to 47. After three consecutive annual appearances this
smallest Phylloscopus on the British and Irish list failed to appear
in 1973.
Two-barred Crossbill Loxia leucoptera
Shropshire: Walcot Forest,©, 8th and 14th November (R. Harrison, D. Hope).
(North-east Europe, north-central Asia, northern North America
and West Indies) A seventh record to add to the already high total
for the year (see also page 338).
344
Rare birds in Great Britain igjg
Appendix I. List of 1973 records not accepted
This list contains all the 1973 records not accepted after circu-
lation to the committee. It does not include (a) records withdrawn
by the observer(s), without circulation, after discussion with the
honorary secretary; (b) records which, even if circulated, were not
attributed by the observer(s) to any definite species; or (c) records
mentioned in ‘Recent reports’ of which full details were unobtain-
able. Birds considered to be escapes are also omitted.
In the vast majority of cases the record was not accepted because
we were not convinced, on the evidence before us, that the identifi-
cation was fully established ; in only a very few cases were we satis-
fied that a mistake had been made.
Black-browed Albatross
Cory’s Shearwater
Little Shearwater
Purple Heron
Great White Egret
Night Heron
American Bittern
Gyrfalcon
Red-footed Falcon
Little Crake
Killdeer
Dowitcher
Stilt Sandpiper
Great Snipe
Slender-billed Curlew
Solitary Sandpiper
Spotted Sandpiper
Lesser Yellowlegs
Least Sandpiper
Baird’s Sandpiper
White-rumped Sandpiper
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Seaton Sluice, Northumberland, 13th November
Between Lundy and Hartland Point, Devon, 19th
August
Fair Isle, Shetland, 7th September
Peel, Isle of Man, 29th September
Hornsea Mere, Yorkshire, three, 8th August
Holbeach Marsh, Lincolnshire, 24th June, 31st July
Loch Spelve, Argyll, 16th August
Cley, Norfolk, 3rd November
Fraserburgh, Aberdeenshire, nth September
Frampton-on-Severn, Gloucestershire, 24th April
Durleigh Reservoir, Somerset, 17th May
Wells, Norfolk, nt June
Leigh-on-Sea, Essex, one or two, 28th to 31st March
Wisbech sewage farm, Lincolnshire/Norfolk, 5th
August
Blithfield Reservoir, Staffordshire, 22nd September
Snape, Suffolk, 28th July
Walland Marsh, Kent, 17th September
Arlington Reservoir, Sussex, 25th September
Pagham Harbour, Sussex, 24th August
West Fleet, Dorset, 25th September
Brough Haven, Yorkshire, 21st September
Sheringham, Norfolk, 6th November
Sandwich Bay, Kent, nth November
Harty, Kent, 24th December
Loughborough, Leicestershire, 8th September
St Mary’s, Scilly, 9th September
Pagham Harbour, Sussex, 29th August
Salthouse, Norfolk, 4th and 5th October
Sandwich Bay, Kent, 22nd October
Silverdale, Lancashire, 30th August
Skokholm Island, Pembrokeshire, 5th and 6th
October
Chew Valley Lake, Somerset, 14th October
Conder Green, Lancashire, 22nd July, 10th August
Durleigh Reservoir, Somerset, 22nd and 23rd
October
345
Rare birds in Great Britain igyj
Western Sandpiper
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Pratincole
Ivory Gull
Bonaparte’s Gull
White-winged Black Tern
Whiskered Tern
Gull-billed Tern
Caspian Tern
Sooty Tern
Lesser Crested or
Swift Tern
Sandgrouse
Snowy Owl
Hawk Owl
Nighthawk
White-rumped Swift
Alpine Swift
White-winged Lark
Red-rumped Swallow
N utcracker
Siberian Thrush
Dusky Thrush
Olive-backed Thrush
Rock Thrush
Black-eared Wheatear
Pied Wheatear
Black Wheatear
Red-flanked Bluetail
Cetti’s Warbler
Great Reed Warbler
Aquatic Warbler
Greenish Warbler
Bonelli’s Warbler
Pallas’s Warbler
Collared Flycatcher
Tawny Pipit
Olive-backed Pipit
Red-throated Pipit
Lesser Grey Shrike
Serin
Trumpeter Finch
Pine Grosbeak
Two-barred Crossbill
Rock Bunting
Rustic Bunting
Warsash, Hampshire, 27th October
Nottingham, 16th September
Mellon Udrigle, Ross-shire, four, 9th or 10th
September
Clodgy Point, St Ives, Cornwall, 13th November
Newhaven, Sussex, 21st October
Rye Harbour, Sussex, 23rd June
Barn Elms Reservoir, Surrey, 1st September
Dungeness, Kent, 26th August
Minsmere Haven, Suffolk, 18th November
Bardney, Lincolnshire, 22nd September
Lymington, Hampshire, 21st August
Flotta, Orkney, 29th July
Keyhaven, Hampshire, 17th November
Loch Doon, Ayrshire, 3rd to 21st June
Duncansby Head, Caithness, 26th September
Pitts Deep, West Solent, Hampshire, 17th September
Scarborough, Yorkshire, 24th May
Seaford Head, Sussex, 5th and 6th June
Fair Isle, Shetland, 23rd February
Hamford Water, Essex, 1st September
Abcrlady Bay, East Lothian, three, 15th August
Lavenham, Suffolk, mid-October
Minsmere, Suffolk, 4th November
Minsmere, Suffolk, 12th June
Stranraer, Wigtownshire, 1 8th May
St Govan’s Head, Pembrokeshire, 24th September
Fair Isle, Shetland, 7th June
Bempton, Yorkshire, 23rd August
Holm, Orkney, 22nd May
Cuckmere Haven, Sussex, 18th August
Thurso, Caithness, t8th June
Slapton Ley, Devon, 7th September
Old Felixstowe, Suffolk, 20th June
Cley, Norfolk, 6th August
Lundy, Devon, 12th August
North Ronaldsay, Orkney, 16th October
Llangorse Lake, Breconshire, 18th August
Plymouth, Devon, 31st October
Fakenham, Norfolk, 12th May
Cley, Norfolk, 29th October
Winterton, Norfolk, 3rd November
Staines Reservoir, Middlesex, 7th November
Hornsea Mere, Yorkshire, 29th May
Fairlie Moor, Ayrshire, nth November
Sutton Coldfield, Warwickshire, 1st December
Long Ashton, Somerset, 3rd and 4th September
Beachy Head, Sussex, 23rd September
Menai Bridge, Anglesey, five, 20th May
Eccleshall, Staffordshire, 25th to 27th November
Caterham Valley, Surrey, two, 29th August to 2nd
September
Gatehouse of Fleet, Kirkcudbrightshire, 9th June
Twiland Wood, Worcestershire, 8th August
346
Little Bunting
Rare birds in Great Britain igyg
Noss, Shetland, 19th May
Theddlethorpe, Lincolnshire, 26th August
Sewardstone, Essex, 10th September
St Agnes, Scilly, 12 th October
Porthgwarra, Cornwall, 21st October
Savannah Sparrow Hengistbury Head, Hampshire, 14th April
Appendix 2. Supplementary 1965 record not accepted
White-billed Diver St Agnes, Scilly, two, iith-2ist and igth-2ist
February respectively
Appendix 3. Supplementary 1967 record not accepted
White-billed Diver North Ronaldsay, Orkney, about 30th April
Appendix 4. Supplementary 1968 records not accepted
White-billed Diver Tay estuary, Fife, 9th or 10th March
Stornoway, Outer Hebrides, two, 2nd June
North Ronaldsay, Orkney, 3rd October
Appendix 5. Supplementary 1969 record not accepted
White-billed Diver Dunnet Bay, Caithness, 2nd March
Appendix 6. Supplementary 1970 records not accepted
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Frodsham, Cheshire, 12 th September
Western Sandpiper East Aberthaw, Glamorgan, 25th August
Appendix 7. Supplementary 1971 record not accepted
Western Sandpiper Sandbach, Cheshire, 17th October
Appendix 8. Supplementary 1972 records not accepted
Cory’s Shearwater
Crane
White-rumped Sandpiper
Western Sandpiper
Calandra Lark
Dusky Thrush
Aquatic Warbler
Arctic Warbler
Pallas’s Warbler
Red-throated Pipit
Serin
Weybourne, Norfolk, 28th August
Rhos Point, Denbighshire, 8th December
Fingringhoe Wick, Essex, three, 27th June
Wisbech sewage farm, Lincolnshire/Norfolk, 29th
September
Fairburn Ings, Yorkshire, 6th to 10th November
Fair Isle, Shetland, 6th June
Fair Isle, Shetland, 15th January
Rainham, Essex, 20th August
Holkham, Norfolk, 3rd September
Hornsea Mere, Yorkshire, 27th September
Fair Isle, Shetland, 20th September, nth October
Blickling, Norfolk, 13th January
Appendix 9. Species currently placed in category D
One such record for 1973 has been accepted (see Brit. Birds, 66 : 332) :
Indigo Bunting Passerina cyanea
Essex: Walton-on-the-Naze, 8th September (R. D. Moore, D. R. Waugh).
347
Rare birds in Great Britain 1973
Appendix 10. Species considered by the Rarities Committee
The list which follows is based upon the British and Irish list, but
the committee is also interested in records of species which have not
yet qualified for this. It is likewise concerned with a number of
well-marked races, e.g. Green-winged Teal, Black-headed Wagtail.
But sight records of these (including ones examined in the hand) are
accepted only as ‘showing the characters’ of the race in question.
Category D species (see Brit. Birds, 64: 429-430; 66: 332) that at
present concern the committee are listed separately.
White-billed Diver
Pied-billed Grebe
Black-browed Albatross
Capped Petrel
Bulwer’s Petrel
Cory’s Shearwater
Little Shearwater
Wilson’s Petrel
Frigate Petrel
Madeiran Petrel
Magnificent Frigatebird
Purple Heron
Green Heron
Little Egret
Great White Egret
Squacco Heron
Cattle Egret
Night Heron
Little Bittern
American Bittern
White Stork
Black Stork
Glossy Ibis
Black Duck
Blue-winged Teal
American Wigeon
Ring-necked Duck
Bufilehead
Surf Scoter
Harlequin Duck
Steller’s Eider
King Eider
Hooded Merganser
Ruddy Shelduck
Lesser White-fronted
Goose
Red-breasted Goose
Egyptian Vulture
Griffon Vulture
Spotted Eagle
Black Kite
White-tailed Eagle
Pallid Harrier
Gyrfalcon
Red-footed Falcon
Lesser Kestrel
Crane
Sandhill Crane
Sora Rail
Baillon’s Crake
Little Crake
Allen’s Gallinule
American Purple
Gallinule
Great Bustard
Little Bustard
Houbara Bustard
Sociable Plover
Killdeer
Caspian Plover
Lesser Golden Plover
Short-billed Dowitcher
Long-billed Dowitcher
Stilt Sandpiper
Great Snipe
Upland Sandpiper
Eskimo Curlew
Solitary Sandpiper
Spotted Sandpiper
Greater Yellowlegs
Lesser Yellowlegs
Marsh Sandpiper
Terek Sandpiper
Least Sandpiper
Baird’s Sandpiper
White-rumped Sandpiper
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Western Sandpiper
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Broad-billed Sandpiper
Black-winged Stilt
Wilson's Phalarope
Collared Pratincole
Black-winged Pratincole
Cream-coloured Courser
Ivory Gull
Ring-billed Gull
Slender-billed Gull
Great Black-headed Gull
Laughing Gull
Franklin’s Gull
Bonaparte’s Gull
Ross’s Gull
White-winged Black Tern
Whiskered Tern
Gull-billed Tern
Caspian Tern
Sooty Tern
Bridled Tern
Royal Tern
Briinnich’s Guillemot
Pallas’s Sandgrouse
Rufous Turtle Dove
Great Spotted Cuckoo
Yellow-billed Cuckoo
Black-billed Cuckoo
Scops Owl
Eagle Owl
Snowy Owl
Hawk Owl
Tengmalm’s Owl
Nighthawk
Red-necked Nightjar
Egyptian Nightjar
Little Swift
Alpine Swift
Needle-tailed Swift
Bee-eater
Blue-cheeked Bee-eater
Roller
Calandra Lark
Bimaculated Lark
White-winged Lark
Short-toed Lark
Lesser Short-toed Lark
Crested Lark
Rcd-rumped Swallow
Nutcracker
Rare birds in Great Britain
1 973
348
Penduline Tit
Wallcreeper
Brown Thrasher
Siberian Thrush
Eye-browed Thrush
Dusky Thrush
Black-throated Thrush
American Robin
White’s Thrush
Olive-backed Thrush
Grey-cheeked Thrush
Veery
Rock Thrush
Desert Wheatear
Black-eared Wheatear
Pied Wheatear
Isabelline Wheatear
Black Wheatear
Red-flanked Bluetail
Thrush Nightingale
Rufous Bush Robin
Cetti’s Warbler
Lanceolated Warbler
River Warbler
Savi’s Warbler
Pallas’s Grasshopper
Warbler
Moustached Warbler
Thick-billed Warbler
Great Reed Warbler
Blyth’s Reed Warbler
Paddyfield Warbler
Aquatic Warbler
Olivaceous Warbler
Booted Warbler
Orphean Warbler
Sardinian Warbler
Subalpine Warbler
Spectacled Warbler
Desert Warbler
Fan-tailed Warbler
Greenish Warbler
Bonelli’s Warbler
Arctic Warbler
Pallas’s Warbler
Dusky Warbler
Radde’s Warbler
Collared Flycatcher
Alpine Accentor
Tawny Pipit
Olive-backed Pipit
Pechora Pipit
Red-throated Pipit
Citrine Wagtail
Lesser Grey Shrike
Woodchat Shrike
Rose-coloured Starling
Red-eyed Vireo
Black-and- White
Warbler
Parula Warbler
Yellow Warbler
Myrtle Warbler
Blackpoll Warbler
Ovenbird
Northern Waterthrush
Yellowthroat
Hooded Warbler
American Redstart
Bobolink
Baltimore Oriole
Evening Grosbeak
Arctic Redpoll (in hand)
Citril Finch
Serin
Trumpeter Finch
Scarlet Rosefinch
Pine Grosbeak
Two-barred Crossbill
Scarlet Tanager
Summer Tanager
Pine Bunting
Black-headed Bunting
Yellow-breasted Bunting
Cretzschmar’s Bunting
Rock Bunting
Rustic Bunting
Little Bunting
Song Sparrow
Fox Sparrow
White-throated Sparrow
Slate-coloured J unco
Rufous-sided Towhee
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
Spanish Sparrow
CATEGORY D
White Pelican
Greater Flamingo (race
roseus only)
Baikal Teal
Yellow-shafted Flicker
Blue Rock Thrush
Blue Grosbeak
Indigo Bunting
F. R. Smith, 1 ij Hill Barton Road, Exeter, Devon exi 3PP
vtv.
The reasons for record rejection
As indicated in the statement preceding its report for 1972 (Brit.
Birds , 66: 329-330), the Rarities Committee still has difficulty in
getting observers to appreciate how critical decisions on rarity
records can be. This is particularly true of certain species subject to
confusion with others which are closely similar and often much
commoner. Their definite identity may therefore be masked by
adverse circumstances or by lack of precise detail. Such problematic
records often attract verdicts such as ‘too marginal’, ‘probable
only’, or ‘cannot accept as 100%’; a condensed, fictitious example
follows :
species claimed Great Snipe Gallinago media
digest of notes ‘A solitary snipe flushed from dry edge of sewage bed, flew
away fast but without twisting; looked bulky and dark, showed white tail corners:
silent; no other snipe nearby, size seemed close to Redshank Tringa totanus;
observer familiar with Snipe G. gallinago and Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus,
but this bird looked very different and identified as Great on silence, w'hite in
tail, and size.’
digest of committee COMMENTS ‘Details insufficient for certain identifi-
cation; could have been a roosting, possibly injured, large Snipe which did not call ;
observer clearly unaware of mainly white tips to outer tail-feathers in young
Snipe; safer to reject.’
Judgement is also made difficult when the details submitted are
incomplete or too brief for a total picture of the bird observed to
be ascertained. Often further investigation of such claims indicates
that a mistake has been made, as follows:
species claimed Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola
digest of notes ‘Small, streaked Acrocephalus in reeds by path; four brief
views showed bird to be yellower than Sedge Warblers A. schoenobaenus nearby ;
streaked rump not seen, but head pattern of creamy supercilia and thin but
marked pale stripe on mid-crown looked different; not associating with Sedge.’
digest of initial committee comments ‘Observer clearly aware of
difference between two species but his notes do not certainly exclude immature
Sedge; probable only; other observers reported this bird, therefore obtain further
descriptions and then recirculate.’
digest of additional notes ‘Crown stripe yellowish, thickly mottled dark;
supercilia whitish, not reaching far behind eye; underparts yellowest along flanks;
legs not seen.’
digest of final committee comments ‘Record not helped by additional
notes which indicate bird was immature Sedge (supercilia of Aquatic long and
huffy, reaching nape) ; now reject.’
The vast majority of records found unacceptable by the Rarities
Committee resemble the two examples above, especially the first.
Both contain what might be termed ‘good starts’ but fail in the
end. There was no certain negative mark against the Great Snipe
claim but equally there was no clinching positive one; the corn-
349
350 Reasons for record rejection
mittee therefore played it safe. Rejection of the Aquatic Warbler
claim occurred because finally a mistake in diagnosis was evident.
There are other factors which attract particularly careful atten-
tion. The most frequent is the continuing danger of escape by captive
birds, now numbering at least 1,500 species in Britain alone and the
subject of a recent paper in this journal ( Brit . Birds, 67: 1 77-197).
The consequences are twofold. First, there are records of species
whose identity is not in doubt but whose origin is. Secondly, there
are many exotic species in captivity which closely resemble known
or potential migrants and vagrants. The committee tries hard to
keep abreast of importations into Britain and continental Europe.
In the case of any new or significant record, the advice of M. D.
England is always sought before any final decision is taken, and the
species comments in the annual report have attempted to give a
balanced view of the escape situation for those species most hedged
by it.
Perhaps more serious is the concern that arises when the date or
locality of a vagrant departs radically from its established pattern,
for example a Pallas’s Warbler Phylloscopus proregulus before any
Yellow-browed Warblers P. inornatus. In such cases the committee
expects or must ask for exceptional attention to detail and, in its
absence, often feels compelled to play safe. There is also the problem
of disagreements among observers over identifications, whether
concurrent with the actual record or subsequent to it, and of the
sometimes angry controversies that result. The committee may or
may not choose to referee such situations; but certainly serious bona
fide requests for reconsideration in the light of new evidence directly
affecting a record or altering the criteria used in its original judge-
ment have never been refused. It must be repeated, however,
that the committee has no sixth sense, and there are occasions
when observer disputes damage a record beyond repair or leave
it hopelessly suspended. Once again rejection is the only safe course.
Finally, it may be noted that records found unacceptable on
grounds of incredible or clearly exaggerated evidence are happily
very few and far between. The committee feels obliged to point out
some errors of this kind, but only in the hope that early correction
will assist the errant observers concerned to accept the common
disciplines of the vast majority and thereby to overcome their very
human desire for a new ‘tick’. Proof of the repeated unreliability
of a particular observer remains very rare, and determined dis-
honesty such as evidently afflicted many of the Hastings Rarities
(see Brit. Birds, 55: 281-384; 62: 364-381; 64: 61-68) has never, to
our knowledge, reappeared in the national record of sight or in-the-
hand identifications. D. I. M. Wallace
Chairman, Rarities Committee
Wotes
'ield notes on the Sharp-tailed Sandpiper On 14th October
973 we found a Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Calidris acuminata in a
hooded field at Sealand (near Shotton Pools) on the Welsh side of
hue boundary between Flintshire and Cheshire (see page 323). When
1 rst seen, it was asleep on the edge of some pools formed by the
umping of slurry from a nearby Pig farm. At this stage the feature
which particularly attracted our attention was its yellowish breast.
*ut to flight by a passing tractor, it soon returned and started
1 ceding in the mud surrounding the pools; it was very tame then
nd throughout its eleven-day stay, during which it was watched by
•everal hundred observers and photographed (see plate 50).
Feeding with a Little Stint C. rninuta and a Reeve Philomachus
Mgnax, it was intermediate in size, if anything slightly closer to the
Reeve, thereby being about 19 cm in length. After the yellowish
■ ireast, which appeared to be between ochre and buff at very7 close
ange, the most notable feature of this small wader was the com-
bination of a dark chocolate-brown crown (with several fine pale
ufous streaks) with a prominent white supercilium and a dark
•atch behind the eye (plate 50a, b). It had a white chin and a faint
ollar of brown striations extending from the neck above the ochre
ireast (plate 50a). The ochre of the breast was sufTused into the
white of the belly and the brown striations on the side of the neck.
I ’he wings, back and mantle appeared scaly, dark brown and
>lack with pale edges (light rufous to bufiish-white). Two pale
ines on each side of the upperparts are well shown in plate 50c:
he upper one was white, but the lower consisted of a line of white
dgings above a broken band of bright rufous feather bases. The bill
was black and the legs a faded yellow. The bird was probably in its
irst autumn, since it conformed fairly closely to the illustration
>f a juvenile on plate 1 1 1 in The Handbook.
In flight the feet were level with the tip of the tail, the leading
dge of the underwing was black, and there was a white patch on
ach side of the tail base and a pale, poorly defined wing-bar. On the
ground a subdued, monosyllabic but musical ‘whit, whit’ note was
teard (also described as a soft ‘weep, weep, weep’), but a different
ittering call was noted when the bird was flying.
Separation from the only species with which this is likely to be
onfused, the Pectoral Sandpiper C. melanotos (illustrated on plate
,1), was not difficult. The following points should be noted:
(i) There was little streaking on the breast other than a narrow collar round
he lower throat; Pectoral Sandpipers have very much more extensive streaking
lere, sharply marked off from a pure white abdomen.
351
352 Notes
(ii) The huffish to ochreish breast was quite distinct from the breast coloration
of the Pectoral Sandpiper in any plumage.
(iii) The dark crown, white supercilium and dark eyestripe were all more
prominently defined than in the Pectoral Sandpipers we have seen (compare
plates 50 and 51).
(iv) While there were no Pectoral Sandpipers present for direct comparison,
there was a strong impression that the Sharp-tailed was much less upright in
posture and stockier in appearance, with shorter neck and legs (this is also sug-
gested by comparing the plates).
(v) The calls were much more metallic and less reedy and harsh than notes
we have heard from Pectoral Sandpipers.
In Birds of the Soviet Union (translated edition, 1966-68) the
authors, G. P. Dementiev and N. A. Gladkov, gloomily and
unnecessarily concluded (vol. 3, p. 174) that ‘any report on observ-
ing this bird must be considered unreliable unless substantiated by
specimens obtained’. In the hand there is a further distinction: the
tail of the Sharp-tailed is fan-shaped and the feathers are regularly
graduated to the long central pair; while in the Pectoral the ter-
minal outline has a bi-concave appearance due to the relatively
great length of the central pair compared with the three outermost
which are equal. C. D. N. Johnson, J. D. Venables
and G. A. Williams
6 Millway, Waverton, Chester
Grey Phalarope feeding on earthworms From 15th to 17th
January 1974, a Grey Phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius spent periods of
several hours daily on a patch of shallow fioodwater on the village
green at Poulshot, Devizes, Wiltshire. The bird swam and waded,
feeding in the normal manner, but it also spent a considerable part
of its feeding time lifting earthworms (Lumbricidae) out of the
water, many of which it ate; others, however, w'ere so large that
it simply held them in its bill as though uncertain of what to do
next, then dropped them into the water before retrieving them and
again letting them fall. On occasions a worm was shaken vigorously
or beaten on the surface of the water before finally being dropped
as before. Presumably all the worms were drowned, as at no time
was any voluntary movement of the prey detected.
Geoffrey L. Boyle
7 Marsh Road, Hilperton Marsh, Trowbridge, Wiltshire
Rufous Turtle Dove in Cornwall At about 17.30 hours on 5th
October 1973, I spotted what I took to be a Turtle Dove Strepto-
pelia turtur sitting on a telegraph wire by a small clump of trees
near a house just inland from Land’s End, Cornwall. I like Turtle
Doves and, because other migrants were few and far between, I
drove my car as close as possible. From 20 metres I put my 10 X 40
Notes
353
glasses on the bird and was immediately struck by its ‘darkness’
(in weak sunlight) and ‘heaviness’. I was conscious of a quite
wide variation in Turtle Dove plumage, but this individual looked
very abnormal. I picked up the Heinzel, Fitter and Parslow guide
(1972, The Birds of Britain and Europe with North Africa and the Middle
East) and compared the bird with the dove plate: it matched
neither the Turtle nor the Rufous Turtle Dove S. orientalis. Some-
what confused, I put the book away and concentrated on the bird.
After four minutes or so, it became anxious and flew down in to
stubble, showing a tail that lacked a white rim. Leaving my car, I
circled the bird, finally flushing it at 15 metres, obtaining good
flight views at up to 200 metres and then watching it flight out of
sight towards Sennen.
There seemed to be no hope ol re-finding the bird, so I returned
to Penzance where, before further reference, I made finished
drawings and full notes from my scribbled field sketches and com-
ments. Unfortunately the former have since been lost in the post
during circulation round the Rarities Committee, but the latter
read virtually as follows:
‘An obvious Streptopelia but distinctly darker, duller and heavier than turtur;
adult, with red “eye” and neck “brooch”; sitting hunched or flying off with
tail and wing pattern/action recalling Stock Dove Columba oenas or Wood-
pigeon C. palumbus. Size as Collared Dove S. decaodo but a little less tail and
more wing. Bill dark, in scale, “eye” red, forecrown and face pale buff.
Crown grey, nape greyish-buff, chest and flanks dirty buff, vent dirty white,
greyish neck patch with at least five black lines, two showing whitish edges
(whole area indistinct). Centre mantle dark brown, scapulars and inner wing-
coverts scalloped with dull warm brown and ochre edges around blackish
centres, outer wing-coverts grey (no blue tone), primaries blackish, tail
blackish (no tail rim visible above), feet reddish. Undertail black with quite
broad greyish rim, undertail-coverts dull greyish merging with buff, under-
wings dark. In flight whole plumage rather drab, less clearly patterned
than turtur, upper back showing greyish-buff tone; wing pattern less striking
and no tail rim visible on take-off or in flight.’
Further reference to Heinzel et al. got me no closer to an identi-
fication; all I could do was to look for Turtle Doves with which
to compare the bird. On the following day I crossed to the Isles
of Scilly, and by 14th October I had spent much time watching up
to 25 turtur on St Agnes at similar ranges and in like light. As
these were immatures, a plumage comparison was not possible, but
they all looked very different in character from the Land’s End bird
and I finally judged them to be ‘definitely smaller, slighter, more
flick-winged in flight, with tail rims always visible even on two
“scruffs”.’ I also felt that, compared with Collared Doves in
Penzance on 6th October and on St Agnes later, the Land’s End
bird had shown little, if any, difference in size and less in character.
354
Notes
I began to sense that to identify it as an odd iurtur was really not
satisfactory, but when I showed my drawings to S. C. Madge, who
has seen the Himalayan form of orientalis, he was not very impressed,
commenting that to his eyes this species was very reminiscent of the
Stock Dove in character and size. My morale sagged further when I
found that the description of orientalis in The Handbook partly
contradicted the plate.
In late October I was able to research the matter more fully and
once more I felt that I might have seen orientalis. Some are no
bigger than Collared Doves and, in fact, none is as large as a Stock
Dove; one on St Agnes in May i960 (Brit. Birds, 53: 445-446)
showed a light greyish tail rim only at close range. Yet there
remained discrepancies, such as the buffy forecrown (featured in
two plates but not in any description), the neck patch (not blue
enough, according to descriptions) and the rather dull brown of the
wing-coverts (lacking the rufousness implied both by published
descriptions and by the bird’s name) . I still found myself unable to
come to a decision on this very intriguing dove, and accordingly
Derek Goodwin, author of Pigeons and Doves of the World (1967), was
asked for his views. He replied as follows:
‘I have no doubt at all that the bird was, as the observer thinks, an Eastern
Turtle Dove Streptopelia orientalis, most probably S. 0. orientalis (or the barely
separable island forms 5. 0. stimpsoni or S. 0. ori ), but possibly a dull individual
of S. 0. agricola. His description, in my opinion, is excellent and could fit no
other species.
‘He seems worried about the whitish edges to the black strips on the neck:
perhaps I erred by omission here as I described them as “light bluish grey”
but they can fade to whitish in worn plumages (and do) and in any case are
often so pale, especially in females, that they would almost certainly look
whitish in the field. As to its being duller on the wing-coverts, another point
that seems to worry him, this in fact is characteristic of orientalis ; the name
“Rufous Turtle Dove” is descriptive only of the race from peninsular India,
S. 0. erythrocephala. This name is a standing temptation to imaginative bird-
watchers to misidentify richly coloured males of S. turtur. He certainly need not
worry that it did not fit “precisely” the pictures in the field guide he mentioned.
Its dove pictures are not its strongest point, to put it mildly.
‘I’ve not heard of any S. orientalis being imported but it seems a long way
west.’
On the basis of Mr Goodwin’s comments, the identification as S.
orientalis has been accepted by the Rarities Committee (see page
328), eight of whose members saw the original coloured drawings
before their loss. This bird was the fourth to have been seen free
in Britain and the second in October. Sadly, and despite Mr
Goodwin’s closing remarks, this species is occasionally imported
(see Brit. Birds, 67: 1 9 1 ) , and thus the possibility exists that it was an
escape. D. I. M. Wallace
9 Woodhill Rise, Heads Lane, Hessle, Hull HU13 ohz
Notes
355
Swallow persistently mobbing Tawny Pipit I was interested in
the note by Julian C. Rolls on the mobbing of a Common Tern
Sterna hirundo by a group of Swallows Hirundo rustica (Brit. Birds, 66:
169). On 6th October 1972, on St Mary’s, Isles of Scilly, I wit-
nessed similar behaviour by a Swallow towards a Tawny Pipit Anthus
campestris. It persistently chased the pipit in the air, following every
twist and turn, and the only way that the latter could obtain
relief from its pursuer was to settle on the ground. Immediately
on taking flight, however, it was again harassed by the Swallow
until it once more sought refuge on the ground. This happened on
four or five occasions over a period of some 15 minutes, each flight
lasting for a minute or so at heights ranging from just above the
hedgerows to about ten metres. G. Summers
23 West Close, Stafford sti6 3TG
This type of pursuit behaviour by various passerines, chiefly
in autumn, was discussed by Dr K. E. L. Simmons (Brit. Birds, 44:
369-372). Apart from intraspecific reactions, he recorded Swallows
chasing Sand Martins Riparia riparia several times, Kingfishers
Alcedo atthis twice, and Coot Fulica atra. Common Sandpiper Tringa
hypoleucos and Black Tern Chlidonias niger once each. Such beha-
viour is probably not uncommon, despite the paucity of published
records, and may be a type of exaggerated social response. Eds
Carrion Crows eating oily fish paper The note by Bernard
King describing the eating of oily fish paper by Jackdaws Corvus
monedula (Brit. Birds, 66: 496) prompts me to record the following
similar incident. During the afternoon of 24th December 1973, on
open grassland at Durdham Down, Bristol, I saw two Carrion Crows
C. corone eating oily fish and chip paper. Each bird was standing on a
piece of saturated paper and tugging at and swallowing portions of
varying size. This behaviour continued for several minutes.
A. P. Radford
2 Wyck Beck Road, Bren try, Bristol bsio 7JE
Large flock of Hooded Crows in Suffolk At 16.30 hours on 22nd
February 1974, at Reydon Marshes, near Southwold, Suffolk, I
watched a flock of 62 Hooded Crows Corvus corone cornix flying over-
head slightly west of north. This record is of interest in view of the
decrease in the numbers seen in Suffolk in winter and on migration
in the last 30 years. W. H. Payn (1962, The Birds of Suffolk) reported
that, apparently, up to 50 were seen at West Stow in the 1950’s,
but otherwise the maximum numbers recorded in the county in
recent years have been 17 at Sudbourne in January 1969, and 15
Notes
356
in the Dunwich-Westleton area in December 1972 ( Suffolk Bird
Reports). Bryan L. Sage
13 Dugdale Hill Lane, Potters Bar, Hertfordshire en6 2DP
Bearded Tit with abnormal leg coloration on 24th January
1 973s while ringing at Ely, Cambridgeshire, I caught a male Bearded
Tit Panurus biarmicus with bright golden-yellow legs and feet and
light brown claws, the usual colour of these parts being blackish. In
all other respects the bird appeared normal. I can recall no previous
mention of such variation, and H. E. Axell, who has handled 3,500
Bearded Tits at Minsmere, Suffolk, informs me that he has never
seen or heard of one with this abnormal leg colour.
C. A. E. Kirtland
22 Montgomery Road, Cambridge CB4 2EQ
House Sparrows acquiring a feeding technique When I first
hung out plastic nets filled with shelled peanuts in my garden at
Brickhill, Bedford, in the winter of 1964/65, the usual tits Parus spp
and Greenfinches Carduelis chloris flew to and clung on them to feed.
House Sparrows Passer domesticus attempted to do this, but fluttered
awkwardly and never succeeded in staying on the net long enough
to feed on the nuts. It was normal to see them on the ground below
the net, looking upwards and waiting for the other species to dis-
lodge fragments of nut, upon which they then fed (Dunnocks Prunella
modularis behaved similarly).
During the following eight winters I did not hang out these nets,
but baited a large funnel trap which I occasionally closed for
ringing purposes. Last winter (1973/74) I reverted to the plastic
nets and, to my surprise, found that House Sparrows instantly star-
ted feeding expertly on them, seeming now to be even more adept
than the Greenfinches, fluttering less when alighting.
It seems likely that the House Sparrows had acquired this habit
elsewhere and that it is now commonplace and taken for granted by
observers. It should, therefore, be placed on record that this was
not always the case. J. T. R. Sharrock
gg Curlew Crescent, Bedford MK41 7HY
J. Jack also reports that in 1973 a pair of House Sparrows per-
fected the technique of grasping the mesh of a white wire nut-basket
in his garden at Cuffley, Hertfordshire. A series of notes that we
published four years ago {Brit. Birds, 63: 345) show that by the
late 1960’s House Sparrows were already clinging to various types of
mesh feeders and taking the contents. This is but one example of
a recent adaptation to an essentially artificial environment by an
opportunistic species (see also Brit. Birds, 66: 91-99). Eds
May reports D. A. Christie
These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
May was generally an unsettled month, with high pressure north-east of Britain
producing easterly winds in the first week. The middle third of the month was
characterised by winds from a southerly quarter followed by a short spell of
westerly weather and a day of north-easterly winds on 25th, and the last week
was dominated by depressions in the north Atlantic.
DIVERS TO CRAKES
After the bird at Loch Fleet (Sutherland) in March and April (Brit. Birds, 67:
250) another White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii was reported during May from
Fetlar (Shetland), and in Chichester Harbour (Hampshirc/Sussex) a Black-
browed Albatross Diomedea rnelanophris was seen at Sandy Point on 10th.
Purple Herons Ardea purpurea were reported only from East Anglia, Kent and
Lancashire: in Norfolk one was at Cley and another at Strumpshaw, near Norwich,
on 19th; at Minsmere (Suffolk) there was one on 13th and i8th-i9th, when two
were reported from nearby Walbcrswick, and another was at the latter locality
on 25th; at Stodmarsh (Kent) two were recorded also on 19th; while in Lanca-
shire there was one at Warton Marsh, Ribble, on 7th and one at Leighton Moss
on 15th. A Little Egret Egretta garzetta was at Lady’s Island Lake (Co. Wexford)
from 5th to 1 2th, one stayed at Loch of Strathbeg (Aberdeenshire) from 22nd to
29th, and further singles were seen at Belvidc Reservoir (Staffordshire) on 30th and
at Salcombc (Devon) on the last day of the month. One of the more exciting events
of May and June was what appeared to be an unprecedented arrival of Great
White Egrets E. alba (though investigations into the escape possibility are
! being made) : the first indication occurred when a large egret Hying over Sutton-
in-Ashfield (Nottinghamshire) on 16th May was identified as this species, and
three days later what was thought to be the same individual was watched at
Newton Solney and Clay Mills (Derbyshire); on 28th one arrived at Scaling Dam
Reservoir (Yorkshire), staying until 6th June, while on 1st June another came
in off the sea from the north-east at Spurn (Yorkshire); and then, on nth June,
a Great White Egret appeared at Lodmoor (Dorset). A White Stork Ciconia
ciconia was at Lough Beg (Co. Antrim/Co. Londonderry) on 9th, and one at Bally-
kelly (Co. Londonderry) from about 20th was still present in July. A total of about
13 Spoonbills Platalea leucorodia was recorded in nine counties north to Aber-
deenshire and west to Co. Dublin, where a single bird at Rogcrstown had been in
the area since November 1972.
A drake Green-winged Teal Anas crecca carolinensis was at Minsmere from 1 ith
to 20th, and a pair of American Wigeon .4. americana from 21st until 17th June,
the male staying until the end of that month. At Rattray (Aberdeenshire) 415
I Long-tailed Ducks Clangula hyemalis flew north and 35 south in two hours on 4th.
Three Velvet Scoters Melanitta fusca were off Howick (Northumberland) on 4th,
when a monthly maximum of 13 flew east at Beachy Head (Sussex) ; at Dungeness
(Kent) easterly movement comprised one on 4th, four on 10th and an exceptional
165 on 12th. From Shetland there was an unconfirmed report of no fewer than
four King Eiders Somateria mollissima during May. Brent Geese Branta bernicla
were reported from nine places, with a flock of 59 flying north-west at the Bann
estuary (Co. Londonderry) on 30th.
Single Rough-legged Buzzards Buteo lagopus, no doubt stragglers from the
autumn/winter influx, were seen in Norfolk at Blakeney Point on 1st and 4th
and at Cley on 2nd, at Fair Isle on 6th and at Strathbeg on 7th. A Red Kite
Milvus milvus appeared at Titchfield Haven (Hampshire) on 5th, a Black Kite
357
358 May reports
M. migrans on Ringstead Downs (Norfolk) on 10th, and a Honey Buzzard Pernis
apivorus at Spurn on 19th, while Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosus were repor-
ted from 20 widely scattered localities. Outside breeding areas, Montagu’s
Harriers C. pygargus were noted only at Minsmere on 6th, Arne (Dorset) on 7th
and Dungeness on 30th. Only about eleven Ospreys Pandion haliaetus were seen
at 13 localities in England, in Lancashire, Nottinghamshire, and the east and
south-east. The expected overshpoting of Red-footed Falcons Falco vespertinus
produced single birds at Minsmere on 2nd and 19th, near Fordingbridge (Hamp-
shire) on 5th, at Holme (Norfolk) on 17th, at Leighton Moss on 17th and 18th and
at Craven Arms (Shropshire) on 24th and 29th. Quails Coturnix colurnix were
heard near Eye Brook Reservoir (Leicestershire) on 22nd and at Wittersham (Kent)
on 26th, and Spotted Crakes Porzana porzana seen at Chew Valley Lake (Somer-
set) on 4th and found to be still present in the Dinnet area of Aberdeenshire in the
second week (see Brit. Birds, 67: 307). Corncrakes Crex crex were seen or heard
near Gunnerton (Northumberland) on 7th, on Fair Isle from 8th to 12th, in
the Rattray/Strathbeg area on nth, at Slimbridge (Gloucestershire) on 19th,
at Hempstead woods (Norfolk) on 24th, and at Salthouse heath (also Norfolk) on
29th (two). A Crane Grus grus was reported in the Horsey area of Norfolk for
several days towards the end of the month.
CHARADRIIFORMES
A Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius on the Calf of Man on 5th was rather
surprisingly only the second Manx record. Kentish Plovers C. alexandrinus
were recorded in Kent (seven), Sussex (one), Suffolk (one), Norfolk (four) and
Guernsey (two). The usual spring passage of Dotterel Eudromias morinellus was
noted from the traditional localities with some records from ‘new’ sites: in the
latter category was a trip at Cliffe (Kent) from 13th to 17th which numbered 22
on the first date, the largest flock reported to us; the next largest gathering was
of twelve, at Fulbourn (Cambridgeshire) also on 13th, which had dispersed
by 26th; a total of about 60 was reported from elsewhere, in Tyneside, Norfolk,
Suffolk, Hertfordshire, Kent, Somerset, Lancashire and the Isle of Man. The
last Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus were two at Teesmouth (Co. Durham) until
the middle of the month. About 18 Wood Sandpipers Tringa glareola were
found at 14 places, and there was a maximum of 43 Spotted Redshanks T.
erythropus at Arne on 6th. Little Stints Calidris rninuta were noted at 17 places,
nowhere more than five together, and Temminck’s C. lemminckii at 17, a total of
about 32 birds including up to four at Minsmere and Teesmouth. This is about
the same as the number of Curlew Sandpipers C. ferruginea reported, apart from
an unprecedented spring flock of 34 at Crossens Marsh (Lancashire) on 23rd.
American waders were well represented during May — a Pectoral Sandpiper C.
melanotos at Porlock marsh (Somerset) on 5th and one at Cley on 10th, a Lesser
Yellowlegs T. fiavipes on St Mary’s (Scilly) from nth to 13th, a Buff-breasted
Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis in Aberlady Bay (East Lothian) from nth to
15th, another Pectoral on Tresco (Scilly) on 19th, and a White-rumped Sand-
piper C.fuscicollis in the Bann estuary on 25th. Palearctic waders included a Broad-
billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus at Dawlish Warren (Devon) on 27th, and
from southern Europe a Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus arrived at
Attenborough (Nottinghamshire) on 1 8th ; in Lancashire Collared Pratincoles
Glareola pratincola were at Scotsman’s Flash, Wigan, from 22nd to 28th and at
Freckleton sewage farm from 24th to 27th, when one was reported at Fleet Pond
(Hampshire). A Grey Phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius in summer plumage was
at Hornsea Mere (Yorkshire) on 27th, and single Red-necked Phalaropes P.
lobatus were seen near Wimborne (Dorset) about 20th and swimming among a
flock of Coots Fulica atra at Chasewater (Staffordshire) on 27th. A Stone Curlew
Burhinus oedicnemus on Fair Isle on 23rd was unusual. It is worth mentioning here
359
May reports
tliat the first Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus to winter in Britain (see page
322) was last seen on the Plym estuary (Devon) on 5th, and presumably the
same individual stayed at Radipole Lake (Dorset) on 6th and 7th and was seen
40 kilometres further east at Brownsea Island about five days later.
A good passage of Arctic Skuas Stercorarius parasiticus will be summarised later.
Pomarine Skuas S. pomarinus were noted at four places: two singles at Port-
stewart (Co. Antrim) and another two at Gilkicker/Hill Head (Hampshire) ; a
total of 45 at Beachy Head, with maxima of 20 on 10th and 14 on 12th; and an
even larger passage at Dungeness which totalled 73, all adults, between 8th and
13th, maxima being 23 on 10th and 45 on 12th. At the same place an adult Long-
tailed Skua S. longicaudus, the first ever spring record for Dungeness, was seen on
13th. A Laughing Gull Larus atricilla was identified at Burnham-on-Crouch
(Essex) on 5th. Of the rarer terns a White-winged Black Tern Childonias
leucopterus was identified at Dungeness on 28th, two Whiskered Terns C. hybrida
were reported at Blackpill (Glamorgan) on 13th, and a Caspian Tern Hydroprognc
caspia remained at Ynys-hir and Ynys-las (Cardiganshire) from 8th to 28th;
Gull-billed Terns Gelochelidon nilotica were seen at Sizewell Beach (Suffolk)
on 10th and at Langley Point (Sussex) on 14th (two) and 16th, and one was at
Portland Bill (Dorset) on 16th. Roseate Terns Sterna dougallii were seen well
inland at Eye Brook Reservoir and at Pitsford Reservoir, both on 18th and the
latter the second Northamptonshire record.
NEAR-PASSERINES AND PASSERINES
A first-year female Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca was on Fair Isle from 1 7th to
20th and another female there on 28th. From southern Europe there were few
instances of overshooting involving near-passerines. Single Alpine Swifts Apus
melba appeared at Hunmanby Gap (Yorkshire) on 13th and at Cley on 17th. A
Bee-eater Merops apiaster flew north at Bempton cliffs (Yorkshire) on 17th and
one was at Dungeness on 19th. A Roller Coracias garrulus was at Aston Upthorpe
Down (Oxfordshire) from 23rd to 27th and one remained at Grange (Banffshire
from 29th to 3rd June. Hoopoes Upupa epops were reported from only twelve
places north to Northumberland and west to Dublin.
A Woodlark Lullula arborea flew east at Sand Bay (Somerset) on 5th. when one
also appeared at Spurn, and a Raven Corvus corax was at Wells (Norfolk on 1 tth.
Up to seven Shore Larks Eremophila alpestris were at Bempton cliffs until 9th.
and singles were on Fair Isle on 23rd and 29th arsd at Spurn on 26th and 27th.
Late Fieldfares Turdus pilaris were reported from 17 places, mostly in small
flocks or singles, though there were flocks of up to 500 between West Boldon and
Holy Island (Northumberland) until 8th and over too near Cheddar (Somerset) as
late as 17th. In England at least, there were far fewer Redwings T. iliacus.
the last being five on Holy Island on 20th and one at Minsmere from 18th to
25th. A Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos was found dead at Spurn on 8th (this
species is a rarity north of the Humber). A Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus palustris
trapped on Sark on 16th was the first Channel Islands record; additionally,
singles were at Sandwich Bay on 18th, at Spurn on 25th (trapped), at Sevenoaks
(Kent) on 27th, and at Dungeness on 31st (trapped, the first for the observatory).
Migrant Wood Warblers Phylloscopus si bit atrix were seen on Fair Isle on 13th and
on the Calf of Man on 17th and 24th.
There were late records of three Waxwings Bombycilla garrulus at Tynemouth on
8th and of a Great Grey Shrike Lamus excubitor on Bardsey (Caernarvonshire)
on 2nd. The last Bramblings FringiUa montifringilla were five at Leyboume (Kent )
on 1 6th and the last Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis a female on Fair Isle on
25th.
Golden Orioles Oriolus oriolus were widely reported — three in west Cornwall
between 1 ith and 18th, at least three in Dorset in the second half of the month,
360 May reports
two in Leicestershire on 20th, a young male trapped on the Call' of Man on the
same date (a first for the observatory), one at Minsmere on 26th and 27th, one on
Fair Isle on 29th and up to two at Wheatfen Broad (Norfolk) from 30th to istjune.
Many other scarce migrants were few in number and these included Bluethroats
Luscinia svecica, with only singles at Rattray on 18th, Teesmouth on 25th and
Tynemouth on 25th and 26th, though on Fair Isle they were recorded on most
days from nth with a maximum of ten on 17th. The only Hippolais warbler was at
Sandwich Bay on 1 ith, and the only Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva a
male at Wells on 5th.
A number of interesting rarities rounded off an eventful month. A Short-toed
Lark Calandrella cinerea was trapped at Spurn on 9th and another was on Fair
Isle from 1 ith to 15th. A male Rock Thrush Monticola saxatilis at Clogher Head
(Co. Louth) on 20th and 21st will be the first Irish record of this species, if
accepted. Two male Black-eared Wheatears Oenanthe hispanica of the black-
throated form arrived at Dungeness on 21st, one of them staying until 29th. A
Thrush Nightingale L. luscinia was on the Out Skerries (Shetland) on 17th and
another on Fair Isle on 21st and 22nd (cf. Brit. Birds, 66: 372). A Savi’s Warbler
Locustella luscinioides was trapped in the Bridgwater area of Somerset on 1 4th, one
stayed at Farlington marshes (Hampshire) from 26th until istjune and another
remained on the River Taw (Devon) from 27th well into July; while a Great
Reed Warbler A. arundinaccus was heard (though apparently not seen) at Stod-
marsh on 26th. Two more Subalpine Warblers Sylvia cantillans followed the one
in April [Brit. Birds, 67: 308), a female trapped on Fair Isle on 16th and a
male at Langness (Man) on 17th. A Richard’s Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae,
very rare in spring, remained at Teesmouth from 2nd to 4th and a Red-throated
Pipit A. cervinus was on Fair Isle on 13th and 14th, while from southern or eastern
Europe Tawny Pipits A. campestris appeared on Skomer Island (Pembrokeshire) on
13th, on the Out Skerries from 14th to 17th and on 26th and at Bempton cliffs
on 1 8th and 19th. Single Woodchat Shrikes Lanius senator were present at
Porthgwarra (Cornwall) on 17th and 18th, on Samson (Scilly) on 19th, on Fair
Isle from 19th to 21st (trapped), and at Creech St Michael, near Taunton (Somer-
set), from 2 1 st until 24th, while another was reported on Fetlar during the month;
and Serins Serinus serinus were found at Salthouse on 4th, at Beachy Head on 15th
and at Clogher Head on 19th. An immature male Scarlet Rosefinch Carpodacus
erythrinus was singing at Salthouse on 27th and another immature male or female
was trapped on Bardsey on 31st. On 16th a male Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica
appeared on the Out Skerries, while on Fair Isle there was a female from 10th to
14th, a male on 15th and 16th and a different male from 17th to 22nd. Ortolan
Buntings E. hortulana have become rare in Britain in recent years: in May they
were recorded at Dungeness, where two on 10th constituted the first spring record
there, and on Fair Isle with one or two daily from 9th to 15th.
stop press From a flood of recent reports, space permits only the following:
Cattle Egret near Rolvenden (Sussex), mid-July to 16th August; Solitary Sand-
piper, Rainham (Essex), 1st to 5th September; Spotted Sandpipers, Weir Wood
Reservoir (Sussex), 1 ith to 17th August, and Aberthaw (Glamorgan), 25th; Lesser
Yellowlegs, Sandbach (Cheshire), 26th August to at least 5th September; Terek
Sandpiper, Sutton Bingham Reservoir, 18th August, and Western at the same place
20th to 22nd; White-rumped Sandpiper, Ferrybridge (Dorset), 4th September;
Wilson’s Phalarope, Dibden Bay, 14th to 18th August; pratincole, Cley, 27th and
28th; Whiskered Tern, Southampton Water, 17th August; Ross’s Gull, Redcar,
22nd August; Greenish Warblers, Spurn, 31st to 3rd September, Teesmouth
about same time and Wells 3rd September; and Bonelli’s Warbler, Great Yar-
mouth (Norfolk), 30th August to 1st September.
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Volume 67 Number 9 September 1974
Feeding ecology of the Long-eared Owl
in Britain and Ireland
David E. Glue and Geoffrey J. Hammond
Among the five widely distributed species of owls in Britain and
Ireland, the breeding and feeding biology of the Long-eared
Owl Asio otus is the least understood. The diets of some Long-eared
Owls in England were studied in detail by Ticehurst (1939), who
examined pellet samples from seven localities, and more recently
a number of local analyses have added to our knowledge, notably in
Lancashire (South 1966), Ulster (Fairley 1967), Inverness-shire
(Wooller and Triggs 1968), Yorkshire (Armitage 1968) and Kent
(Flegg and Cox 1968). With the help of 22 ornithologists during
1964-73, we have examined the spectrum of prey taken by Long-
eared Owls at a further 51 localities, totalling 7,761 vertebrate prey
items. The studies have brought to light a number of interesting
facts about the feeding ecology of this owl at British and Irish
breeding sites and winter quarters, and form the basis of this paper.
DISTRIBUTION, HABITAT, NEST AND ROOST SITES
The Long-eared Owl is not scarce as a breeding bird in some parts
of Britain, being widely distributed over much of eastern and
lowland Scotland and northern England, and in the Isle of Man. In
western Scotland, Wales and the rest of England it is generally
local, and even entirely absent from several regions. It is more
widespread in Ireland. Its numbers are augmented substantially in
the winter by immigrants from the Continent. The status of the
Long-eared Owl in many areas is obscure, owing to the difficulty of
361
362 Feeding ecology of Long-eared Owls
locating scattered pairs; but the birds can often be found by care-
fully listening for the characteristic calls of the adults and young,
or by looking for roosts in suitable places.
This is typically the conifer owl in Britain and Ireland, being
found in plantations, small shelter belts and clumps of spruce, pine
and larch on farmland and moorland. To a lesser extent it frequents
deciduous woodland, especially with ivied trees and occasional coni-
fers, and also low bushes on marshes, dune-slacks and moorland.
Winter congregations of half-a-dozen and even as many as 20 owls
have been located.
The birds are often faithful to one locality, returning annually
to breed or winter in the same wood or clump of trees. The presence
of a roosting owl is often betrayed by groups of pellets and excre-
ment at the foot of the regular roost tree. The ground beneath
the nest can be a useful source of pellets and prey remains, as can
the site of the roosting mate, which is frequently within 50 metres
of the nest. These facts make it possible, through diligent searching,
to collect and analyse sizeable samples of Long-eared Owl pellets
and so to assess the diets of both breeding and wintering birds.
The 51 sites from which the data used in this paper are derived
comprise 25 in northern England, twelve in Scotland, ten in
southern England, two in Ireland and two in Wales. Space does not
allow us to discuss the 51 diets individually, but full details of each
have been deposited in the British Trust for Ornithology’s Reference
Library. The varied nature of the sites is illustrated by the ten brief
habitat descriptions which follow.
Examples of breeding sites
inverness-shire: Mature Douglas firs among unevenly aged fir, spruce and larch
stands showing widespread wind damage.
Nottinghamshire: Tall hawthorns in the centre of deciduous scrub surrounded by
arable farmland.
Lincolnshire: Scots pines in the centre section of an extensive area of Forestry
Commission plantations.
rent: Dense willow scrub with extensive areas of rough grassland on a vast
coastal shingle expanse.
co. Londonderry: Tall Scots pines in mature oak woodland close to a suburban
housing area.
Examples of winter roost sites
Orkney: Firs in a small mixed wood near farm buildings, surrounded by agricul-
tural land and moorland.
Staffordshire : A narrow strip of mainly coniferous woodland situated on heather
grass-moor with hill pasture nearby.
Cambridgeshire: Apple trees in a large mature Blenheim orange orchard, under-
sown with grass and flanked by ploughed arable land.
kent: A dense thicket of hawthorns forming part of a much larger area of deci-
duous woodland, surrounded by mixed farmland and marsh.
Feeding ecology of Long-eared Owls 363
Wiltshire: Scattered clumps of semi-mature Norway spruce among young beeches
on a steep chalk downland slope.
PELLET ANALYSIS
It is often not easy to ascertain whether pellets were regurgitated
by Long-eared Owls without a confirmatory sighting of the predator,
because they vary considerably in size, colour and composition, and
can be confused with those ejected by other species, particularly the
Tawny Owl Strix aluco. The latter often frequents conifer stands
and sometimes utilises old nests of other birds, as does the Long-
eared Owl. Consequently, only material from sites where a Long-
eared Owl has been observed and identified has been used in this
summary.
Most commonly, fresh Long-eared Owl pellets are elongated
dark grey-black masses of clumped fur and feathers, enveloping a
core of mammal and bird bones with the occasional hard parts of
invertebrates. The average size of 2,484 pellets from 20 scattered
sites was 3.3 cm in length by 1.9 cm in breadth. These measurements
compare closely with those from other studies (South 1966, Armitage
1968, D. W. Scott, verbally). Occasionally included among the
smallest pellets are virtually round castings whoch often do not con-
tain hard materials. These are probably composed of residues
regurgitated after a fully formed pellet has already been ejected.
Several analysts of Long-eared Owl pellets have urged the need
for care when identifying and quantifying bird and mammal prey
(South 1966, Flegg and Cox 1968). Decapitation and partial con-
sumption of birds and larger mammal prey occurs during both the
breeding and non-breeding seasons. Consequently, checks on the
numbers of mammal pelves and bird sterna and sacra have been
made regularly, to ensure that the pellet analysis represents an
accurate record of the diet.
HUNTING METHODS
The Long-eared Owl appears to be a particularly versatile hunter.
From the combined contents of the 51 diets examined (table 1), it
is clear that this owl feeds on a large spectrum of small and medium-
sized mammals, fewer birds, and the occasional amphibian and
invertebrate. Consideration of the variety of hunting techniques
employed goes a long way towards explaining the relative frequency
with which the different preys are eaten.
The hunting method most commonly observed involves quarter-
ing over open ground, flying forwards and back again over the
regular territory at a height of usually 0.5-1 .5 metres. The wing-beats
are quite fast and are not normally raised above the line of the body,
and there are short (but occasionally lengthy) intervals of gliding
364 Feeding ecology of Long-eared Owls
Table i. Vertebrate diet of Long-eared Owls Asio otus at 51 localities in Britain and Ire-
land, from pellet analyses and from prey identified at nest sites
A conversion factor in ‘prey units’ has been applied to each food item (see Southern 1954)
based on the estimated weight of the species ; the total prey weight thus calculated is expressed
as a percentage of the combined weight of all prey. One prey unit is equal to approximately
20 gm of matter
Number of
Percent
Conversion
Percent
individuals
numerical
factor
prey weight
Short- tailed Vole Microtus agrestis
3,679
47-4
1.0
40.7
Wood Mouse Apodemus sylvaticus
L397
18.0
1.0
15-4
Birds (see pages 366-368)
1 , 1 6 1
15.0
1.0
12.8
Bank Vole Clethrionomys glareolus
854
1 1 .0
1.0
9-4
Brown Rat Rattus norvegicus
233
3-o
5-o
12.9
Common Shrew Sorex araneus
201
2.6
o-5
1. 1
Pygmy Shrew Sorex minutus
99
i-3
0.2
0.2
Orkney Vole Microtus arvalis orcadensis
48
0.6
2.0
1. 1
Water Vole Arvicola amphibius
27
o-3
5-o
i-5
Rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus
15
0.2
20.0
3-3
House Mouse Mus musculus
12
0.2
1.0
0.1
Mole Talpa europaea
10
0.1
5-o
0.6
Water Shrew Neomys fodiens
6
0.1
o-75
<0.05
Pipistrelle Bat Pipistrellus pipistrellus
5
0.1
0.25
<0.05
Common Frog Rana temporaria
5
0.1
1.0
0.1
Weasel Mustela nivalis
4
0.1
4.0
0.2
Grey Squirrel Sciurus carolinensis
2
<0.05
20.0
O.4
Harvest Mouse Micromys minutus
I
<0.05
o-3
<0.05
Stoat Mustela erminea
I
<0.05
10.0
0.1
Edible Dormouse Glis glis
I
<0.05
8.0
0.1
TOTAL
7,761
100.0
100.0
during the hunting flight. It is in this manner and over such habitats
as rough grassland, hill pasture, marsh, grass-moor, woodland rides
and glades that the bulk of the Long-eared Owl’s primary prey on
the British mainland, the Short-tailed Vole*, must be taken. Prey is
captured while quartering by a deliberate stall during flight, which
brings the owl to the ground feet-first, talons at maximum spread,
hopefully pinning the small mammal and absorbing the impact of
landing. Occasionally, Long-eared Owls hover effectively over low
herbage and bushes before plunging to kill small mammals or
disturb roosting birds. Although probably the most nocturnal of the
British owls, this species occasionally hunts in daylight (J. Young,
D. W. Scott, verbally).
Limited observations suggest that Long-eared Owls are well
suited to hunting in woodland, and the regularity with which cover-
dwelling rodents, such as the Wood Mouse and Bank Vole, are
taken (table 1) confirms this view. The birds frequently hunt by
*Scientific names of mammalian prey species are listed in table 1
Feeding ecology of Long-eared Owls 365
quartering plantations, keeping below the canopy, and sometimes
rest on low vantage points in cover to watch for prey below. Thus,
although there is still considerable scope for studies of their hunting
techniques, particularly in view of the recent availability of image
intensifiers for nocturnal use, a variety of methods in both open and
closed habitats are already well known.
SPECTRUM OF MAMMAL PREY
As stressed earlier, the Long-eared Owl feeds on a wide variety of
small and medium-sized mammals. The 18 species listed in table 1
formed 85% of the vertebrate prey total. The Short-tailed Vole was
numerically the commonest prey item, accounting for 47% of the
total prey. This is the most abundant small rodent of open habitats,
being distributed throughout the British mainland but absent from
certain of the Scottish islands and from Ireland (Southern 1964). Of
the other small mammals eaten in any quantity, the Wood Mouse,
Bank Vole, Brown Rat, Common and Pygmy Shrews are all widely
distributed on the British mainland and in Ireland, with the notable
exceptions of the Common Shrew which is absent from Ireland and
the Bank Vole which in Ireland is restricted to the south-west
(Southern 1964).
The 51 diets examined included four from localities where the
Short-tailed Vole is absent — two in Orkney and two in Ireland. In
Orkney there is an ecologically and anatomically very similar
cricetid rodent, the Orkney Vole, and this was the staple food item at
each site there (both small woodland roosts surrounded by agricul-
tural land and moorland). Orkney Voles formed 57% and 52% of
the combined prey weight at the two localities, with Wood Mice,
Brown Rats, House Mice and Pygmy Shrews killed in smaller
numbers (prey unit total = 89.2; see table 1). At both Irish breed-
ing sites — oak woodland in Co. Londonderry and pastoral farm-
land in Co. Cork — Wood Mice were the primary prey, forming
72% and 61% of the diets respectively, with Brown Rats of secon-
dary importance (15% and 23%) and fewer small birds, House
Mice and Pygmy Shrews (prey unit total = 282). These findings
agree closely with those of earlier analyses of Long-eared Owl pellets
in Ireland. At one site in Co. Antrim, pellet material collected by
Standen (1897) contained 70% Wood Mice, 22% Brown Rats,
6% birds and 1% bats and shrews (prey unit total = about 508).
In a more comprehensive study by Fairley (1967), the combined
content of pellets from 16 localities in Cos. Antrim, Down and
Londonderry comprised 70% Wood Mice, 20% Brown Rats, 6%
House Mice, 4% birds and i°0 Pygmy Shrews (prey unit total =
L373)-
366 Feeding ecology of Long-eared Owls
In the 47 diets examined on the British mainland in the current
study, Short- tailed Voles occurred in every pellet sample and this
small rodent was the main food item by prey weight in 40 diets. The
Wood Mouse was consistently of secondary importance, though
in two localities — deciduous scrub on farmland in Nottinghamshire
and deciduous woodland on chalk downland in Berkshire — it was
the primary food by prey weight. At another roost on Nottingham-
shire farmland, Brown Rats were the major food item by prey weight,
but rats occurred in only ten (21%) of the mainland diets and were
largely immature animals. From the occasional presence of the
remains of Brown Rats, Water Voles, Rabbits, Moles, Grey Squirrels,
Weasels and Stoats, it is clear that the Long-eared Owl is capable of
taking both sizeable and aggressive mammalian prey (table 1). In
the remaining four diets in which the Short-tailed Vole was not of
primary importance, birds were predominant (see below) .
Apart from mammalian and avian prey, the occasional amphibian
and invertebrate is eaten. Beetle remains were present in eight diets
and counts of elytra, thoraces and headparts suggested 28 individuals,
largely dor beetles (Geotrupidae) and ground beetles (Carabidae),
taken mainly during the breeding season. Chaetae of earthworms
(Lumbricidae) were identified in pellets from two localities. Hence,
as with the Barn Owl Tyto alba (Glue 1967, 1971), invertebrates only
occasionally form an important constituent of the diet, in contrast
to the food requirements of the Little Owl Athene noctua (Hibbert-
Ware 1936, 1937-38) and Tawny Owl (Southern 1954, 1969) in
Britain.
SPECTRUM OF BIRD PREY
Bird prey constitutes a greater proportion of the diets of Long-
eared and Tawny Owls than of those of the other three widespread
British and Irish owls (Glue 1972). Bird remains were present in
46 (90%) of the pellet samples analysed, forming 15% of the total
prey consumed in all 51 diets, and were the main food by prey
weight in four diets. The four localities concerned were mixed conifer
plantations in Hertfordshire, conifer belts on moorland in Stafford-
shire, and coastal scrub in Kent and Yorkshire.
Because of the problems posed by the decapitation and partial
consumption of bird prey, it was not possible to identify all the
fragmentary remains. With the aid of an extensive reference collec-
tion, however, 955 of the 1 , 1 6 1 birds were named. In view of the
proportion unidentified (18%), the probable bias against small
passerines and in favour of some larger birds among those identified,
the uncertain age and hence weight of some species, and the pre-
ponderance of House Sparrows Passer domesticus, it was considered
impracticable to attempt to break down the spectrum of bird food
i Feeding ecology of Long-eared Owls 367
by prey weight for each species. In table 1 a conservative conversion
factor of 1.0 (about 20 gm) has been applied to birds in general,
to provide a comparison with the relative weights of other vertebrate
prey.
It is clear that Long-eared Owls often raid communal roosts of
thrushes, finches and sparrows, and also kill a wide variety of
largely woodland and woodland fringe birds. The House Sparrow
was by far the commonest victim, comprising 57% of the individual
birds identified. The next commonest were the Starling Sturnus
vulgaris (9%), Blackbird Turdus merula (5%), Greenfinch Carduelis
chloris (4%), Skylark Alauda arvensis, Song Thrush T. philomelos and
Linnet Acanthis cannabina (each 3%), Jay Garrulus glandarius (2%),
warblers Phylloscopus and Sylvia spp (2%) and Great Tit Parus major
Table 2. Vertebrate diets of Long-eared Owls Asio otus at 20 sites during
breeding and non-breeding seasons
Scientific names arc listed in table 1
breeding: March-July
NON-BREEDING :
Aug-Feb
(1,475 pellets)
(1,009 pellets)
Number
Percent
Number
Percent
Short-tailed Vole
1.789
50
1,146
45
Wood Mouse
738
21
408
16
Bank Vole
5>5
>4
228
9
Brown Rat
93
3
84
3
1 Common Shrew
too
3
61
2
• Other (except birds) 52
I
54
2
Birds (see table 3)
291
8
596
23
TOTALS
3.578
100
2,577
100
Table 3. Bird prey diets of Long-eared Owls Asio otus at
20 sites during
breeding and non-breeding
seasons
Scientific names are given on pages 366-367
breeding: March-July
non-breeding: Aug-Feb
(1,475 pellets)
( 1 ,009 pellets)
% bird
% grand
% bird
% grand
Number total
total
Number
total
total
House Sparrow
>32 45
3-7
353
59
13-7
Finches
28 10
0.8
58
10
2-3
Starling
22 8
0.6
58
10
2-3
Blackbird
18 6
0-5
32
5
1 .a
Song Thrush
16 5
0.4
17
3
0.7
Others identified
48 16
i-3
21
4
0.8
Unidentified
27 9
0.8
57
10
2.2
TOTALS
291 100
8.1
596
100
23.1
368 Feeding ecology of Long-eared Owls
(1%). Bird prey ranged in size from Goldcrest Regulus regulus up to
Moorhen Gallinula chloropus and Little Owl. Included among the
1, 1 61 birds eaten were just single young Partridge Perdix perdix
and Pheasant Phasianus colchicus, indicating that this owl only
rarely kills gamebirds. All species comprising numerically less than
1 % of the identified avian prey are listed in the appendix on page
369-
At 20 sites, pellets were collected methodically over the year
and it was possible to compare the spectrum of vertebrate prey
taken during the breeding season (March to July) with that taken
during the non-breeding season (August to February) (table 2). The
most striking change in the non-breeding season was the threefold
increase, from 8% to 23%, in the numerical proportion of birds in
the diet. This was due to a greater dependence on communally
roosting House Sparrows in the autumn and winter months, when
they comprised, numerically, 14% of the whole diet, compared with
the much smaller number (though wider variety) of young woodland
birds killed in the summer (table 3).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study would not have been possible without the help of the following 22
field-workers who collected pellets and prey traces and in many cases helped
with their analysis: M. J. Allen, E. Balfour, C. J. Booth, C. J. Cox, D. Elias,
Dr J. J. M. Flegg, Miss B. Gillam, R. G. Hawley, C. Jolly, R. E. Levy, G. P.
Mawson, C. J. Mead, Dr P. A. Morris, C. Nicholson, D. W. Scott, R. E. Smith,
Dr S. J. Tyler, M. Unwin, J. J. Walling, A. Warburton, J. Wilson and Dr D. W.
Yalden. R. G. Hawley, Robert Morgan and John Young kindly read through
and commented on the first draft of this paper.
SUMMARY
The spectrum of prey taken by the Long-eared Owl Asio otus at 51 widespread
localities in Britain and Ireland during 1964-73 is assessed by the analysis of
pellets and prey traces. Guidance is given on the location of roosts and on the
collection and analysis of pellets. Habitats and hunting methods are described.
Small and medium-sized mammals are shown to be the main prey, the 18 species
found forming numerically 85% of the 7,761 vertebrate food items identified. The
Short-tailed Vole was the staple food (47% of prey), with the Wood Mouse (18%),
birds (15%) and the Bank Vole (11%) most regularly of secondary importance.
(For scientific names see table 1, page 366 and the appendix.) In Ireland and
Orkney, where the Short-tailed Vole is absent, the Wood Mouse and Orkney Vole
were respectively the main foods, with Brown Rats, House Mice and Pygmy
Shrews eaten in smaller numbers.
Despite the predominance of small mammals in the Long-eared Owl’s diet, larger
species were occasionally taken, for example adult Water Voles, Grey Squirrels
and a Stoat. Larger bird prey included Moorhen, Little Owl and Nightjar. House
Sparrows were by far the commonest bird prey, particularly in the autumn and
winter months when there was a threefold increase in the numerical proportion of
birds in the diet.
Feeding ecology of Long-eared Owls
369
REFERENCES
Armitage, J. S. 1968. ‘A study of a Long-eared Owl roost’. Naturalist, no. 905:
37-46.
Fairley, J. S. 1967. ‘Food of Long-eared Owls in north-east Ireland’. Brit. Birds,
60: 1 30- 1 35.
Flegg, J. J. M., and Cox, C. J. 1968. ‘Winter food of Long-eared Owls in Kent’.
Bird Study, 15: 163-164.
Glue, D. E. 1967. ‘Prey taken by the Barn Owl in England and Wales’. Bird Study,
14: 169-183.
1971. ‘Avian predator pellet analysis and the mammalogist’. Mammal Review,
1 : 53-62.
1972. ‘Bird prey taken by British owls’. Bird Study, 19: 91-95.
Hibbert-Ware, A. 1936. ‘Report of an investigation of the food of captive Little
Owls’. Brit. Birds, 29: 302-305.
I937*38- ‘Report of the Little Owl Food Inquiry. 1936-37’. Brit. Birds, 31:
162-187, 205-229, 249-264, plates 5-10.
South, G. R. 1966. ‘Food of Long-eared Owls in south Lancashire’. Brit. Birds ,
59= 493-497-
Southern, H. N. 1954. ‘Tawny Owls and their prey’. Ibis, 96: 384-410.
(ed.) 1964. The Handbook of British Mammals. Oxford.
1969. ‘Prey taken by Tawny Owls during the breeding season’. Ibis, 111:
293-299.
Standen, R. 1897. ‘Some observations by English naturalists on the fauna of
Ilathlin Island and Ballycastle district. 1. General observations’. Irish Nat.,
6: 173-178-
Ticehurst, C. B. 1939. ‘On the food and feeding-habits of the Long-eared Owl
( Asio otus otus)'. Ibis (1939): 512-520.
Wooller, R. D., and Triggs, G. S. 1968. ‘Food of the Long-eared Owl in Inver-
ness-shire’. Bird Study, 15: 164-166.
Appendix. Species comprising numerically less than 1% of
the identified Long-eared Owl bird prey
Partridge Perdix perdix (young)
Pheasant Phasianus colchicus (young)
Moorhen Gallinula chloropus
Lapwing Vane litis vanellus
Woodpigeon Columba palumbus
Little Owl Athene noctua
Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus
Swallow Hirundo rustica
Jackdaw Corvus monedula
Blue Tit Parus caeruleus
Coal Tit Parus ater
Willow Tit Parus montanus
Treecreeper Certhia familiaris
Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe
Goldcrest Regulus regulus
Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca
Dunnock Prunella modularis
Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba
Hawfinch Coccothraustes coccothraustes
Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis
Redpoll Acanthis flammea
Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula
Brambling Fringilla montifringilla
Yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella
Reed Bunting Emberiza schoeniclus
David E. Glue and Geoffrey J. Hammond, British Trust for Ornithology,
Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR
Studies of less familiar birds
iJ3 Icterine Warbler
Geoffrey Beven
Photographs by IbTrap-Lind
Plates 52-54
The Icterine Warbler Hippolais icterina, so characteristic of the
cultivated parklands and town parks of central and eastern Europe,
is named by virtue of its general coloration from the Greek ikteros,
meaning ‘jaundice’ or ‘a greenish-yellow bird’. The loud song is
striking and contains both fine musical and harshly discordant
sounds. This species has already featured in a previous photographic
series (Ferguson-Lees 1954), but we can now include some magnifi-
cent photographs taken in Denmark by lb Trap-Lind in 1966-67
(plates 52-54).
The Icterine Warbler is 13.5 cm long and resembles a large,
stocky leaf-warbler Phylloscopus sp with brownish-olive upperparts
and bright lemon-yellow underparts, the sides of breast and flanks
tinged brownish. On young birds there is less yellow, and in some
adults the greens and yellows are suppressed, leaving a greyish
colour (Smout i960). The short supercilium and eye-ring are also
yellow. The olive-brown wing when folded shows the longest primary
reaching to or beyond the tips of the uppertail-coverts, and the slim
point of the bunched primaries forms about a third of the total
wing-length. These wing characters are perhaps the most valuable
field distinction from the very similar Melodious Warbler H. poly-
glotta, in which the longest primary does not reach the end of the
uppertail-coverts and the slim point of the bunched primaries forms
about a quarter of the total wing-length (see especially plates 3-4 in
Ferguson-Lees 1965). The inner secondaries and tertials are edged
yellow or whitish and often form a distinct pale patch in the closed
wing (Williamson 1956), but this feature should never be used as
the single or best factor in distinguishing between these two species
in spring, as the Melodious Warbler occasionally shows a similar
panel at that time. For a detailed discussion of these points, see
Wallace (1964). The tail is olive-brown and almost square at the tip.
In the autumn Icterine Warblers tend to be much duller, with very
pale yellowish underparts, and there is a possibility of confusion
with, for example, Garden Warblers Sylvia borin (Williamson 1956,
The crown has a peaked appearance, the peak being usually just
behind the eye (Wallace 1964). The bill is rather flat and broad,
370
Icterine Warbler studies
37i
the upper mandible being brown and the lower pinkish, both yellow
along the cutting edges; the bright orange mouth is often visible
when the bird sings. The irides are dark or olive-brown, and the
legs blue in front and purplish at the sides. Several races have been
described but are not generally accepted (Vaurie 1954, Williamson
1 963) •
There are six closely related species of Hippolais which breed in
Europe and western Asia. They largely replace each other geo-
graphically, with comparatively little overlap (Ferguson- Lees 1954).
Of the five which breed in Europe, the Icterine Warbler is the most
widespread, ranging from 67° in Norway, 6i° in Sweden, 63° in
Finland and 64° in Russia southward to the Alps, northern Yugo-
slavia, Bulgaria and the northern Caucasus. In Asia the range
extends to western Siberia, reaching the Altai mountains, and also
into extreme western Anatolia (where rare) ; and there is a separate
population in northern Iran. Nesting in North Africa is not regarded
as proved (Etchecopar and Hue 1967), in spite of a report that
Icterine Warblers nested commonly round Tunis (Payn 1948).
The range overlaps that of the Melodious Warbler in the northern-
most part of Italy and in north-east France (Voous i960). According
to Erard (1961), in the French department of Marne the Icterine
appears to occupy the northern districts and the Melodious the
southern, the River Marne forming a natural boundary between
them. A study in the 20 km wide French zone of overlap in Burgundy
showed that each male kept other males of both species out of its
territory, reacting to the song of the other species in the same way
as to that of its own but rather less intensely (Ferry and Deschaintre
1966).
In Britain a nest with three eggs is said to have been found in
1907 near Marlborough, Wiltshire (British Ornithologists’ Union
1971). Previously regarded as a rare vagrant to Britain (^Witherby
et al. 1938-41), in recent years this species has been recorded more
commonly. It is now considered an irregular passage visitor in May
and June, mostly at Fair Isle, and regular in very small numbers
from late August to mid-October on the east and south coasts of
Britain and in south-west Ireland (Co. Cork), less often elsewhere.
According to Sharrock (1969), the peak autumn migration in
Britain and Ireland as a whole occurs between 27th August and 9th
September. The region of peak passage on the British east coast
becomes progressively more southerly through the autumn, perhaps
because the vagrancy pattern merely mirrors the latitude of the
bulk of the population at any particular time.
On the Continent, passage through Provence occurs from late
August (Leveque 1957) and many pass by night along the north
German coast in the first week of September (Nisbet 1957).
372
Uterine Warbler studies
At about this time, passage is also occurring through Greece,
Turkey, Jordan, Iraq and Iran (Bannerman 1954, Lambert 1957,
Vaughan i960). It is, therefore, perhaps surprising that in autumn
these warblers appear to be uncommon in North Africa, though
small numbers do move through the Sudan and Eritrea then
(Moreau 1972).
Most Icterine Warblers seem to winter in western Arabia and
eastern tropical and southern Africa, from Kenya south to the Trans-
vaal, Botswana and South-west Africa, sometimes reaching the
Orange Free State (Bannerman 1954, Moreau 1961, 1972,
Mackworth-Praed and Grant 1963), but there is uncertainty about
the exact range. Lack (1971) considered that they winter mainly
south of Zambia and that records from Cameroun and Kenya are
probably of birds in transit. There are, however, records from
Uganda between October and March, and a bird sang throughout
three successive winters in a Kampala garden (Pearson 1972).
Pitman (1934) considered the species fairly common in Zambia,
but there are apparently only two authentic records (involving four
birds) from the Kaonde-Lunda province in the north-west (Britton
1970). Farther south, Traylor (1965) found it common inNgamiland
(north-west Botswana). In South Africa it is said to be uncommon
(Mackworth-Praed and Grant 1963).
Bannerman (1953) described the Icterine Warbler as extremely
rare in West Africa. More recently, however, birds have been
reported returning northwards through Nigeria in April and May
(Elgood et al. 1966). Early in spring many arrive at Lake Chad,
having already laid down fat for the journey north (Dowsett and
Fry 1971). On spring migration they mainly cross the central Sahara,
and by the end of March some have reached the Kufra oasis in the
centre of the great Libyan Desert (Cramp and Conder 1970), though
others are still passing through northern Libya in early May
(Stanford 1954). Although they are common spring migrants in
Tunisia and Tripolitania, they are rather scarce then in Cyrenaica
and Egypt (Moreau 1961, Bundy and Morgan 1969). They arrive
in their European breeding-grounds mainly in mid-April and May
(Scott 1970), but small numbers continue to pass through southern
Fi ance until the end of May (Leveque 1957). Moreau Q 1 96 1 , 1972)
concluded that probably a large proportion make very long flights
on migration, especially over West Africa in autumn. Alternatively,
perhaps, they move through East Africa in autumn, returning
northwards via West Africa.
In spring the Icterine Warbler frequents canopy in open wood-
land, especially oaks, often with few or no bushes. It is also found in
forest edges and orchards, and in much of Europe it is the common
warbler of town parks and gardens. It is fond of isolated trees or
Icterine Warbler studies
373
bushes among cultivated plots, often near houses or water, and
occasionally drier scrubby areas. In western Siberia it originally
inhabited bushes on wooded slopes and greatly extended its range
eastwards as more land became cultivated (Voous i960). In Sweden,
though preferring maritime deciduous woods, it is also found in pure
conifers in Scania and on the island of Firo (Durango 1948). On
migration through Greece it visits olive groves, vineyards and scrub,
and in North Africa palm groves, oleanders, eucalyptus, arid bush
and grass in open desert, ascending in Eritrea to Combretum wood-
land and plateau scrub at up to 1,300 metres; and in winter it
frequents the acacia savannahs of tropical Africa (Bannerman 1954,
Stanford 1954, Lambert 1957, Smith 1957, Voous i960).
The food consists mainly of insects and their larvae, including
beetles, flies, small moths, earwigs, locust-hoppers and aphids.
Spiders and small snails, and even earthworms, are also eaten, and
in summer cherries, currants and elderberries.
Although active and lively, the Icterine moves more slowly than
the leaf-warblers. Much time is spent among leaves high in the
canopy, jumping restlessly from branch to branch in search of
insects. Nevertheless, this species often skulks in bushes, especially on
migration when it may be extremely shy and easily overlooked. It has
a more upright perching stance than the leaf-warblers and is seldom
seen on the ground. When excited it seems to sing even more vigor-
ously than usual, often erecting its crown feathers to produce a
characteristic big-headed appearance. Perched on a twig, its typical
stance at such times is with legs wide apart and rather short tail
squared. E. M. Nicholson has described a display-flight in which the
bird sings while parachuting down from a tree like a pipit Anthus sp ,
and other observers have noted a fluttering display-flight with
occasional short glides, much like that of a Wood Warbler P. sibi-
latrix (Witherby et al. 1938-41, Bannerman 1954).
At its best, the song is similar to that of the Marsh Warbler Acro-
cephalus palustris but more rapid and powerful, with frequent imita-
tions. Loud and vehement, sometimes almost explosive, it is long
sustained with rich musical notes and much harsh chattering, shriek-
ing and churring. Its mimicry has given rise to the German name
Gelbspotter (Yellow Mocker). As it sings it often jumps about the
twigs, and it may sometimes be heard singing at night. The song rs
delivered either from dense cover or from an exposed perch, perhaps
the top of a tree or bush, or even a telegraph wire or tall flagpole in
a village square. On occasion it may be uttered in flight or while
hovering in front of another bird. Song may stop wrhen breeding
begins but may be resumed immediately if the eggs disappear (Van
Dobben 1949). Moult occurs late in the year in winter quarters, and
many birds start to sing before moving northwards; song continues
374
Uterine Warbler studies
until July (Witherby et at. 1938-41, Ferguson-Lees 1954). The female
contributes a quiet subsong. There are various calls: a low and
churring alarm, a plaintive ‘hooeet’, a musical liquid ‘deederoid’, a
harsh ‘tek-tek’ and a quiet chattering.
The nest is placed in a fork in a tree or bush, often syringa, lilac,
elder, osier, pear or other fruit tree, usually one to three metres up
but occasionally five. The very neat, deep and solid structure is
normally built by both sexes and often securely attached by fine
grass loops to the fork. Moss and vegetable down, fine grasses, roots
and perhaps bark fibre are used, and the lining is of hair, grasses and
roots, with a few feathers (plate 54).
Van Dobben (1949), who closely studied the nest-building tech-
nique, found that the bird stuck sheep’s wool and empty egg pockets
of spiders to twigs with web, forming a little platform. By sitting
and turning on this and adding further material, it formed a shallow
cup, wiping cobwebs on to the outside and pulling them over the
rim. Then the bird lay flat down, supported on the rim by throat,
wings and tail, while it made rapid alternate scrabbling movements
of its feet. Material was slowly pushed from the bottom of the cup
into the surrounding wall which rose steadily higher. This process
of adding material to the bottom and pushing it outwards to build
up the rim was repeated, the original elastic cobwebs, binding twigs
to rim, stretching as the wall grew.
The outside of the nest may be beautifully decorated with pale
birch bark, and vegetable fibres are sometimes bound round the
nest like barrel-hoops. Decorations have also included wool, paper,
lichens and cocoons, and even rags up to 46 cm long. Some nests are
much tidier than others (see plates here and in Ferguson-Lees 1 954) .
There are usually four or five eggs, more rarely six, laid at daily
intervals. Their size is variable; they are oval and slightly glossy,
dull rose or very pale pinkish-violet in colour, sparingly spotted or
streaked black or with very fine lines. In Estonia some were deep
pink with darker spots. Incubation, lasting 13 to 14 days, is shared
by both birds; the female sits very close and scolds loudly if disturbed.
The young are fed in the nest for 13 to 14 days, food being brought
in the bill. The species is single-brooded, full clutches being found
at the end of May in Germany, though farther north in Estonia
laying does not begin until the first week of June. (Data from
Witherby et al. 1938-41, Bannerman 1954.)
REFERENCES
Bannerman, D. A. 1953. The Birds of West and Equatorial Africa. London.
1954. The Birds of the British Isles. Edinburgh and London. Vol 3.
British Ornithologists’ Union. 1971. The Status of Birds in Britain and Ireland.
Oxford.
Icterine Warbler studies
375
Britton, P. L. 1970. ‘Birds of the Balovale district of Zambia’. Ostrich, 41 : 145- 190.
Bundy, G., and Morgan, J. H. 1969. ‘Notes on Tripolitanean birds’. Bull. Brit.
Orn. Cl., 89: 139-144, 151-159.
Cramp, S., and Conder, P. J. 1970. ‘A visit to the oasis of Kufra, spring 1969’.
Ibis, 1 12: 261-263.
Dovvsett, R. J., and Fry, C. H. 1971. ‘Weight losses of trans-Saharan migrants’.
Ibis, 1 13: 531-533.
Durango, S. 1948. ‘Om den gulbrostade Sangarens, Hippolais icterina (Vieill.),
forekomst och hackningsvanor i Sverige’. Fauna och Flora, 5: 186-220.
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Dr Geoffrey Beven, 16 Parkwood Avenue , Esher, Surrey ktio 8dg
The Crag Martin in winter quarters
at Gibraltar
JV. Elkins and B. Etheridge
Plate 55
The Crag Martin Hirundo rupestris is a southern Palearctic species
which is generally sedentary, occasionally wandering a little in
winter; it is more migratory in the northern parts of its range
(Cramp 1970). In Europe it breeds from Iberia through southern
France, Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria and Italy to the Balkans.
It also breeds in North Africa from Morocco to Tunisia and
Cyrenaica. Voous (i960) quoted instances of wintering in the
southern Alps. In Spain, Bernis (1966) stated that the species winters
in the lowlands and is migratory to some extent, but gave little
detail. Some migrants pass through north-west Africa, and recently
one was taken in Senegal in mid-November (Moreau 1972). How-
ever, there is little information on the whereabouts of the winter
quarters of the more migratory European populations, mainly owing
to the difficulty in trapping and ringing breeding birds. Few Crag
Martins have been ringed in western Europe (G. Hemery, Professor
L. Leporati, Dr A. Schifferli, and Dr G. Zink, in litt.).
In Gibraltar the species is mainly a winter visitor, roosting in large
numbers. The origin of these birds is unknown at present, but it is
hoped that this question may be resolved by the ringing programme
which began in November 1973. A few pairs occasionally breed
(E. F. J. Garcia in litt.), and small passages occur in late summer and
autumn, and in spring.
This paper is concerned with the behaviour of Crag Martins
wintering in Gibraltar, ringing data being used to amplify the
observations. Our study covered the three winters from 1971/72 to
1 973/ 74*
Crag Martins in winter quarters
377
MOVEMENT AND NUMBERS
Crag Martins begin to appear in Gibraltar in increasing numbers
from the first week of October. By late October considerable flocks
are present, with 300 to 400 feeding over the western slopes of the
Rock of Gibraltar in suitable weather. At this time there is also much
movement north and south between the Rock and Spain, but the
majority remain to roost. By mid-November numbers rise to
700-800, but, apart from feeding flocks in the most favourable
weather, an increasing proportion of these birds leave the Rock in
the morning, returning in the evening. Large feeding flocks virtually
cease to exist by late November, and only a few birds occasionally
remain to feed during the day. By the end of November the roosting
population numbers over 1,000, and from early December to early
March between 1,500 and 2,000 birds arrive nightly to roost. There
is evidence that the wintering population increased during the study
period, from an estimated 1,300-1,500 in winter 1972/73 to over
2,000 in the following winter. This increase was also noticed by the
local ornithologists who know the species well (E. F. J. Garcia in
litt.).
The above figures are based on direct counts of birds arriving to
roost at dusk. In addition, in winter 1973/74 the s*ze °f the popula-
tion was calculated from retrap data during the ringing programme.
The calculation was based on the method used by Boreham (1964)
at a breeding colony of Sand Martins Riparia riparia. Owing to
factors operating against random sampling, only a tentative figure
could be deduced. This was 2,100 d: 200, which agrees closely with
data obtained by direct counting. Random sampling when trapping
was not possible, owing to several factors. The whole roost was not
accessible; and the extent of movement of birds between various
parts of the roost, thought to be considerable at times, was unknown.
Data were also probably biased by disturbance and, infrequently,
by reduced trapping efficiency due to gusty winds. A lower ratio of
retrapped to new birds in late February and early March, when
there was no sign of the population diminishing, suggested that
wintering birds were leaving and passage migrants were taking their
place. From late February other migrant hirundines were in the area
and could be seen at dusk among arriving Crag Martins. Migrant
Swallows H. rustica and Red-rumped Swallows H. daurica were also
trapped in the roost itself.
During March the Crag Martin population decreases until all
have left by the end of the month, though Lathbury (1970) recorded
that some were present until mid-April.
HABITAT
Voous (i960) described the breeding habitats as warm, sunny and
378 Crag Martins in winter quarters
dry rocky slopes, deep rock clefts, narrow river valleys and steep
rocky sea coasts. In general the Crag Martin is a sedentary bird
which at most seeks favourable micro-climates in which to winter.
The Rock of Gibraltar has a steep western slope covered with
dense olive maquis, broken only by discontinuous cliff and rock
faces and small man-made fire-breaks and water catchments. The
eastern side of the Rock (plate 55) is mainly bare, with precipitous
cliffs and large water catchments. The smaller catchments on the
western side are steep rocky slopes with concrete surfaces. These
catchments and the natural rock faces, surrounded as they are by
dense bushes, afford warm slopes over which insect life abounds.
The Crag Martins roost mainly in a small number of limestone
sea caves on the east side of the Rock. Minor roosts exist in clefts and
man-made tunnel entrances in the cliffs above. The major roost
occupies several large caves (see plate 55), the largest accessible one
being 40 metres across and 25 metres high at the mouth. Cave depths
vary, the deepest measuring some 50 metres. One or two have steep
sandy slopes inside, which are due to past exploration and excava-
tion. There is also a good deal of boulder fall at the mouths. The
caves all face eastwards, most on to a shingle beach with outcrops
of limestone. (This beach is artificial, being spoil from rock tunnel-
ling, and all the caves opened on to the sea until 20 to 30 years ago.)
Those further north, also used for roosting, open directly on to the
sea and are therefore inaccessible. The beach itself is accessible from
land only by a steep flight of steps through an area prohibited to the
general public. Thus the roost is almost undisturbed by man, the
only predators being the resident Peregrines Falco peregrinus and at
least two feral cats. These cats feed extensively on Crag Martins
which are probably caught while roosting on the lowest ledges.
The airflow round the Rock is such that the caves are unaffected
by most wind directions. They are sheltered from westerlies and
south-westerlies except in certain conditions which cause gustiness
locally. In easterlies a relatively calm area exists at sea level along
this part of the coast, owing to the deflection of the airflow upwards
over the Rock. Other wind directions are very infrequent. The cliffs
above the caves rise in a series of terraces to the top of a ridge
at about 250-300 metres above sea level.
BEHAVIOUR
In autumn, feeding flocks of Crag Martins patrol the whole of the
western slopes but are more concentrated at the southern end, where
the bare warm surfaces are frequently used for perching. Here the
birds rest and preen in sunny weather. Aerial chasing frequently
occurs, and perched flocks also show behaviour similar to that of
379
(''rag Martins in winter quarters
terns Sterna spp during ‘dreads’ : a whole party suddenly leaves its
perch and wheels away in complete silence, later returning to rest
again. Once, in midwinter, a flock of 500 birds, flying at 300 metres,
showed panic at the appearance of an unidentified raptor. They
dived quickly to lower levels, hugging the slopes very closely. This
behaviour was also noted twice involving a Peregrine, but a winter-
ing Osprey Pandion haliaetus provoked no such reaction. Migrating
raptors, such as Honey Buzzards Pernis apivorus and Griffon Vultures
Gyps fulvus, are actually mobbed by flocks of Crag Martins in late
autumn, and it may be that the birds recognise potential predators
and take avoiding action from these only.
Nearby buildings with rooftop rainwater pools are occasionally
used lor drinking and bathing On one occasion, two birds repeatedly
perched on a church tower in the centre of the town of Gibraltar,
though this is perhaps not unusual in view of the records of nesting
on man-made structures (Cramp 1970, Niederfriniger 1973).
Flocks normally consist solely of Crag Martins, but other hirun-
dines, such as Swallows, Red-rumpcd Swallows, Sand and House
Martins Delichon urbica, are occasionally seen among them during
spring and autumn passage. A House Martin arrived with roosting
Crag Martins on 22nd December 1973, but disappeared after
feeding above the cliffs for a few minutes. In March a few' Sw'ifts
Apus apus can also be seen arriving w'ith the Crag Martins, some to
roost under the eaves of town buildings and others using the caves.
Both Swifts and other hirundines doubtless feed in the same area
as the Crag Martins.
It was found that feeding birds are present in large numbers in
light winds and when temperatures are above i8°C. Clearly these
conditions lead to a large flying insect population, concentrated
enough to support several hundred Crag Martins. In mid-October
mean temperatures are greater than i8°C from i£ hours after sunrise
until past sunset. This allows 9^ hours for feeding over the Rock.
By early November mean temperatures have dropped sufficiently to
reduce this feeding time to 6| hours. After mid-November, with
cooler and more inclement weather, almost the entire population
visits the Rock only to roost. Mean temperatures remain below
i8°C after this time and for the remainder of the wintering period of
the species, and, except on individual days of high temperature,
Crag Martins must seek food elsewhere. In the more inland areas
of southern Spain, the diurnal range of temperature is greater and
the days are warmer. Feeding probably occurs over a wade area of
the Spanish hinterland, as the winter climate precludes any con-
centrated abundance of food. P. G. C. Brudenell-Bruce (in litt.), at
Zahara de los Atunes (Cadiz), southern Spain, has recorded a party
of about 100 regularly flocking at sunset between October and
380 Crag Martins in winter quarters
March. J. Pineau {in litt.) has trapped Crag Martins going to roost
in December in the hills of northern Morocco around Jebel Musa,
some 30 km SSW of Gibraltar.
In Gibraltar the birds arrive at dusk and leave during the
morning. Incoming birds arrive from the north, flying to the west of
the Rock. The route taken, and the altitude, are largely dependent
on wind force and direction. In light winds the Crag Martins fly at
heights of up to 300 metres above sea level. In strong westerlies they
come considerably lower, often at rooftop height over the town.
In strong easterlies they fly further west, at heights of up to 150
metres. In westerlies flight is direct, but in a turbulent easterly
flow much circling in eddies downwind of the Rock can be observed
as the birds move south. On reaching the southern half of the Rock
they move across the lower slopes and quickly drop over the edge of
the eastern cliffs. Their arrival at the cliffs is spectacular, the birds
pouring silently over the cliff edge, the only sound being the rush
of air through the wings. This behaviour is similar to that exhibited
by other social species which regularly roost in sea caves, such as the
Starling Sturnus vulgaris. Unlike that of some other hirundines, for
example Swallows, their flight into the roost is normally direct, with
no swarming.
On arrival at the cave mouth, the birds appear under the edge of
the roof, having dropped down the face of the cliff above. There is
little activity, and most go to roost in a short time, but on warm
evenings some feeding takes place prior to roosting. In all the caves,
the Crag Martins roost on innumerable ledges. The roofs are
covered in stalactites, many of which have formed ‘chimneys’ : these
offer further roosting sites which the birds utilise. Many use the
deepest recesses of the caves.
The timing of the roosting flight is dependent upon weather con-
ditions in the feeding area. In fine or fair weather with light or
moderate winds, it begins 30 to 60 minutes before local sunset:
movements starting later than this occur mainly in December when
daylight is shortest. On average, all birds are at the roost by 15 to 20
minutes after sunset, occasionally arriving in semi-darkness. In dull,
cloudy conditions, when light available for feeding is substantially
reduced, the birds come to roost much earlier, appearing up to two
or three hours before sunset, and then the roosting flight may be
prolonged and broken. Heavy rain and very strong winds result in
even earlier arrivals. For example, on 28th November 1972, with an
easterly wind of 40 to 50 knots, large numbers were present low
over the town in the lee of the Rock from midday onwards. On two
days in December 1973, with strong south-westerly winds and
heavy rain, roosting flights began just after midday; on one of these
days, the 19th, most of the incoming birds appeared ahead of a
Crag Martins in winter quarters 381
marked cold front which was moving from the west, accompanied by
heavy rain. This early return due to a front approaching from the
west has been noted on several occasions, and suggests that most of
the birds were feeding in an area to the west of Gibraltar (see below).
This is borne out by observations of birds leaving in this direction in
the morning.
The departure in the morning is much less conspicuous. The birds
do not leave the roost early, usually not stirring until at least 30 to
60 minutes after local sunrise, though on occasions they have been
observed moving within 15 to 20 minutes of sunrise. Large numbers
can be seen on the ledges of the roost up to i-i£ hours after sunrise,
and are occasionally still in the caves as late as 3-3! hours after
sunrise. Both in the caves and on the cliffs, they sunbathe and preen
in suitable sheltered spots, including the sandy-bottomed cave
mouths. In cold weather they appear very loth to leave their
relatively warm environment. The departure doubtless depends
upon the availability of food, and this in turn is dependent upon the
daytime rise of temperature in the feeding area. Although some of
the morning movement is in a northerly or north-westerly direction
(no birds have ever been recorded either arriving or departing along
the east side of the Rock), substantial numbers, possibly the majority,
fly due west across the bay of Algeciras. These birds head towards
the hills of the Tarifa peninsula in southern Spain, which have a
general elevation of 300 metres, rising to 600 metres in places.
Some of the slopes are bushy and craggy, and catch the early morn-
ing sun, probably providing good feeding conditions early in the day.
Also, on warm sunny mornings, even in midwinter, there appears
to be sufficient food in the vicinity of the roost to delay the departure
of at least some of the birds. A few even remain in the general area
all day, mainly when temperatures rise in the early spring. No birds
have been recorded arriving from the west in the evening: they
prefer to follow the coast round the head of the bay.
In normal weather conditions, and allowing for the journey to and
from the nearest feeding area (about 10-15 km distant), the time
available for feeding is estimated to be in the region of 6-8i hours in
December and January, increasing to 8-io| hours by March. In bad
weather, when the return flight sometimes begins four to five hours
before sunset, the feeding time in midwinter must be reduced to
1^-4 hours. Even then, food is unlikely to be available in any
quantity. The early roosting flights are doubtless due to a combina-
tion of lack of food, reduced efficiency of food gathering, the
necessity to conserve energy by going to roost early, and the urge to
shelter from rain. Kennedy (1970) mentioned a w'ide variety 0/
species seeking such shelter, but quoted several records of hirundines
flying and presumably feeding in rain.
382
Crag Martins in winter quarters
VOICE
Contrary to statements in the literature, it was found that the Crag
Martin is surprisingly vocal and has a wide range of calls. A con-
tinuous hubbub of sound emanates from feeding flocks in autumn.
Calls are hirundine in character, and a subdued Swallow-like song
is heard at times. They are mainly variations on ‘prrrit’, variously
noted as ‘trrrip’, ‘tyiup’ and ‘chirrp’. Others have been recorded,
including one recalling a House Martin, single notes ‘pitcha’ and
‘tsooeep’, and a low churr. In excitement, for example during
aerial chasing, a rapid ‘chu-chu-chu-chu-chu’ has been heard,
similar to the flight note of a Redpoll Acanthis Jlammea. Perched birds
sometimes give a loud, whistling ‘teeoo’ or ‘tsiu’ when disturbed;
this is occasionally repeated quickly, two or three times. A quiet,
plaintive ‘wheeee’ has been heard from perched birds at the
appearance of a predator. The last two calls both appear to be alarm
notes. In winter the Crag Martins at the roost are often quite vocal
for a short while, both on arrival and on departure.
VARIATION IN WEIGHT
All birds trapped and retrapped in the course of the ringing pro-
gramme during 1973/74 were weighed with a spring balance, inter-
polating to the nearest 0.1 gm. Those trapped before 28th January
were mist-netted on the western and southern slopes of the Rock,
while subsequent captures were made in mist-nets in the roosting
caves, except for a few caught on the slopes. Weight data for all
samples of five or more birds are shown in fig. 1 . Most of the martins
trapped were caught in the evening on arrival, but later in the
winter some morning catches were made. All birds were weighed
immediately when trapped, except those in large catches in the
evening, when the majority were removed from the site and weighed
between one and three hours later. These latter were then roosted
overnight in ventilated cardboard boxes and released the following
morning near the trapping site. This delay in weighing may have
resulted in a slight unnatural weight loss due to the activity of the
birds in the boxes. Samples of birds roosted overnight were re-
weighed the following morning and found to have lost 3% to 4% of
their weight overnight. This was similar to the 2%~5% loss in the
sheltered cave roost estimated by comparing the weights of samples
trapped in the evening and in the following morning. Small
passerines are known to lose up to 10% or more of their weight
overnight (Perrins 1964).
The highest weights occurred after mild days of sunny, dry
weather with light winds, when food was most abundant. Evidence
showed that the weight decrease in bad weather was more rapid
than the corresponding increase in good weather. Gladwin and Nau
Plate 52. Icterine Warbler Hippolais iclerina feeding brood. Denmark, July 1967
(photo: lb Trap-Lind). Like most Hippolais, this species is rather large and
heavily built for a warbler, with a prominent head and strong, flattened bill;
the wing-structure (the primaries extending well down the tail) is the most
reliable distinction from the Melodious Warbler H. polyglotta (pages 370-3761
vie 53 (opposite). Pair of Icterine Warblers Hippolais icterina at
e nest as that on plate 52 (photo: lb Trap-Lind ); the nest is a very
1 and deep structure built in a fork of a tree or bush (page 374 )
Plate 54. Clutch of six eggs of Icterine Warblers Hippolais icterina, Denmark,
June 1966 (photo: lb Trap-Lind ): the usual clutch size is four or five and the
eggs are slightly glossy with a pale rosy or mauve-tinged background page 374
Plate 55. Winter roost site of Crag Martins Hirundo rupestris on the east side
of the Rock of Gibraltar, looking north {photo: N. Elkins). Most of the caves
along the beach are used for roosting, and other sites lie in clefts and tunnel
entrances in the cliffs above; the scale is suggested by the height of the buil-
dings, the summit ridge being 250-300 metres above sea level (pages 376-387)
Crag Martins in winter quarters 383
25 30 4 9 14 19 24 29 3 8 13 18 23 28 5 K> 15
0«c«mb«r January February March
Fig. i. Variation of weight of Crag Martins Hirundo rupestris trapped in Gib-
raltar, winter 1973/74, vvith maximum day temperature. The upper graph shows
the maximum day temperature, a dashed line indicating the long-term mean. The
series of points below shows the mean weight of each catch, the standard deviation
(a vertical line above and below) and the number of birds in the sample; for mor-
ning catches the standard deviation is shown as a dashed line, all others being
made in the evening
(1964), working on Swifts, found that weight could be correlated
with maximum day temperatures, which affect their food of
flying insects and aerial plankton. Swift weights fell with decreases in
temperature. Although the Gibraltar Airport meteorological data
used in the present study were not fully representative of the feeding
area, a similar trend was evident with Crag Martin weights (fig. i),
but other parameters, such as rainfall amount and duration,
sunshine and wind force, are important. As already shown, the
occurrence of such elements as strong winds or heavy rain causes an
early return to the roost, and the consequent reduction in feeding
time gives rise to low weights which were, indeed, recorded on
several days on which early roosting flights were noted.
In table i, the mean weight of birds trapped during each period
of the winter is compared with the corresponding difference between
the mean day maximum temperature and the long-term average.
The data do not include samples of less than five birds or morning
catches, the only exception being the morning catch of i ith January
which has been adjusted upwards by 3% to give it the estimated
equivalent weight of the previous evening. Table 1 also shows that
there appears to be a close connection between mean weight and
temperature, but the samples were few in number and not randomly
384 Crag Martins in winter quarters
Table 1. Weights of Crag Martins Hinindo rupestris trapped in Gibraltar, winter 1973/74,
in relation to monthly temperature trends (see text)
Period of trapping
Number of
samples
Mean weight
(gm)
Difference from
av. temp. (°C)
Observed weight
range (gm)
November-December
3
24-9
+ 0.2
1 9. 1 -30.0
January
8
26.3
+ 1.1
20.2-33.0
February
5
23-9
0.0
17.7-32.0
March (to 1 1 th)
4
23.1
-0.4
20.4-30.2
distributed throughout the winter; thus no statistical inference can
be drawn. There were two main exceptions to this general trend
(see fig. 1). On 1st January a small sample of six long-winged birds
gave a rather high mean weight; and on 13th February, although
the weather was mild, heavy rain and strong winds had pre-
dominated during the previous two days and the sample of 36 birds
showed low weights. (It was also possible that pronounced body-
moult in March depressed the weights a little in this period.)
From the data presented, it would appear that the mean weight
of the Crag Martin in a winter of average temperatures is around
24 gm, and that in a period of cold or wet weather (or both) some
birds lose a substantial percentage of their weight. Those handled in
late February, when weights were at their lowest, appeared
decidedly thin. Some individuals lost up to 25% of their weight in a
few days (see fig. 2). The occurrence of poor weather obviously has
a considerable effect on the population; in some winters such
weather can sometimes last up to a week, though such periods are
January February March
Fig. 2. Weight changes of selected individual Crag Martins Hirundo rupestris
trapped on more than one date, Gibraltar, 1974. Morning weights have been
adjusted upwards by the estimated overnight weight loss, and plotted on the
previous day
Crag Martins in winter quarters 385
infrequent. Thus this species, the only hirundine to remain in
Europe in winter in such large numbers, can normally survive the
season. It is, perhaps significantly, the heaviest and most robust of
the European hirundines. Nevertheless, weight losses suggest that
some mortality may occur from starvation. There was some evidence
of this from remains of birds on the cave floors, which are scavenged
by gulls Larus spp as well as the feral cats. In cold weather many
species increase their weight by fat deposition. This occurs as long as
food is available, and combats heat loss (Hope Jones 1962, Newton
1966), but when food is scarce some species lose weight rapidly.
Harris (1962) thought that small passerines may die after losing only
35% of their body weight. Mead (1970) has shown that Swallows
occasionally suffer heavy mortality in cold or rainy spells in their
winter quarters in South Africa, and mortality of hirundines has
been observed to occur in cold, wet weather in north-west Africa
during spring passage (J. Pineau, verbally). Understandably, in
tropical areas where food is abundant throughout the northern
winter, neither Pearson (1971) nor Medway (1973) found any
significant variation in weights of wintering hirundines in East
Africa and Malaysia respectively. The only changes were associated
with the addition of pre-migratory fat in early spring. No such
increase was found during the present study, which suggests that the
Crag Martins wintering in Gibraltar are short-distance migrants,
perhaps coming from no further than the mountain areas of
southern Spain.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Major Houghton, of Gibraltar Fortress Headquarters, for
permission to work at the cave roosts, and Harry Van-Gils for invaluable assistance
in the field. Other helpful information was supplied by P. G. C. Brudenell-Bruce,
E. F. J. Garcia and J. Pineau, and the directors of the ringing schemes in France,
south Germany, Italy and Switzerland obligingly answered queries. Stanley Cramp
very kindly read the paper before submission. The meteorological data are pub-
lished by kind permission of the Director-General, Meteorological Office.
SUMMARY
The behaviour of Crag Martins Hirundo rupestris wintering in Gibraltar during
1971-74 is described and their dependence on weather conditions discussed. Notes
are given on their roosting sites, habits and calls. By ringing samples of birds at the
roosts, it was found that during spells of poor weather the species’ feeding time,
and consequently its weight, was substantially reduced. The variation of weight is
discussed and related to meteorological factors. Evidently, weight losses due to
curtailment of feeding in bad weather, though considerable, are not severe
enough to prevent the species from using the area as a regular winter habitat.
REFERENCES
Bernis, F. M. 1966. Aoes Migradoras Ibericas. Madrid.
Boreham, J. 1964. ‘A colony of Sand Martins’. Ringers Bull., 2 : no. 5, pp. 5-7.
386 Crag Martins in winter quarters
Cramp, S. 1970. ‘Studies of less familiar birds. 159. Crag Martin’. Brit. Birds, 63:
239-243-
Gladwin, T. W., and Nau, B. S. 1964. ‘A study of Swift weights’. Brit. Birds,
57: 344-356-
Harris, M. P. 1962. ‘Weights from five hundred birds found dead on Skomer
Island in January 1962’. Brit. Birds, 55: 97-103.
Hope Jones, P. 1962. ‘Mortality and weights of Fieldfares in Anglesey in January
1962’. Brit. Birds, 55: 178-181.
Kennedy, R. J. 1970. ‘Direct effects of rain on birds: a review’. Brit. Birds, 63:
401-414.
Lathbury, G. W. 1970. ‘A review of the birds of Gibraltar and its surrounding
waters’. Ibis, 112: 25-43.
Mead, C. J. 1970. ‘The winter quarters of British Swallows’. Bird Study, 17:
229-240.
Medway, Lord. 1973. ‘A ringing study of migratory Barn Swallows in West
Malaysia’. Ibis, 1 1 5 : 60-86.
Moreau, R. E. 1972. The Palaearctic- African Bird Migration Systems. London and
New York.
Newton, I. 1966. ‘Fluctuations in the weights of Bullfinches’. Brit. Birds, 59:
89-100.
Niederfriniger, O. 1973. ‘Crag Martins nesting on buildings’. Brit. Birds, 66:
121-123.
Pearson, D. J. 1971. ‘Weights of some Palearctic migrants in southern Uganda’.
Ibis, 1 13: 173-184.
Perrins, C. M. 1964. ‘Weight’ in A New Dictionary of Birds, edited by A. Lands-
borough Thomson. London.
Spencer, R. 1972. The Ringer’s Manual. BTO, Tring.
Svensson, L. 1970. Identification of European Passerines. Stockholm.
Voous, K. H. i960. Atlas of European Birds. London.
N. Elkins, cjo Meteorological Office, RAF Lossiemouth, Morayshire
Cpl B. Etheridge, cjo Station Flight, RAF Gibraltar, BFPO 52
Appendix. Measurements of Crag Martins
Few data on the measurements of the Crag Martin have been found in the litera-
ture. During winter 1973/74, 649 birds were trapped and ringed in Gibraltar.
Wing measurement (fig. 3, table 2) was taken from all but six, to the nearest
millimetre by the maximum chord method. Tail, tarsus and bill measurements
(table 2) were taken from small samples, using standard methods (Spencer 1972),
the tail being measured to the nearest millimetre, the bill and tarsus to the nearest
half millimetre. Measurements of soiled or abraded tails were not taken. Fig. 4
shows wing length plotted against tail length.
Sexing of birds was not attempted, and thus all measurements apply to both
sexes. A bimodal peak in the distribution of tail length suggests that birds of
extreme tail measurement can be sexed. One trapped on 12 th March and sexed
as a female on the basis of its short wings and tail had a bare brood patch.
The ageing criteria initially applied were those of Svensson (1970) but, as his
methods were based on few specimens, other criteria were sought and tested.
These criteria, and moult, are being studied. Little, if any, variation was found
between measurements of adults and those of first-winter birds. Primary moult
finished at the beginning of the ringing period, in early November, and therefore
had no effect on either measurement or weight during this study.
Data given in table 2 include the theoretical ranges (mean ± three standard
deviations) in which one would expect 99% of the population to fall.
Tabic 2. Measurements of Crag Martins Hirurulo rupestris trapped in Gib-
raltar, winter 1973/74 (millimetres)
The bracketed figure for wing-length refers to one exceptionally long-winged
individual (see fig. 3). The theoretical range is explained in the text
Wing
Tail
Bill
Tarsus
Number measured
643
64
34
33
Mean
133-1
5i-7
1 1.6
1 1.8
Standard Deviation
± 2-95
± i-73
± 0.40
± O.44
Observed range
125-142 (144)
48-56
I I — 1 2 i
1 1-12$
Theoretical range
124-142
47-57
io*-!3
i°i-i3
Fig. 4. Tail-length plotted against wing-length for 64 Crag Martins Hirundo
rupestris trapped in Gibraltar, winter 1973/74
Notes
•
Great Spotted Woodpecker tapping on window pane At 5.30
am on 10th June 1974 I was wakened by a loud tapping on the bed-
room window of my house at Bow Brickhill, Buckinghamshire. After
three or four taps I drew back the curtains and saw a Great Spotted
Woodpecker Dendrocopos major fly off the sill. I can only imagine
that it had been pecking at its own reflection in the window. The
bird was a male, perhaps showing aggression towards what it took to
be another male in its territory. Peter Smith
31 Church Road, Bow Brickhill, Milton Keynes MK17 9LH
Anting-like behaviour and food of Wryneck On 29th August
1970, at Portland Bill, Dorset, R. M. Curber and I watched a Wry-
neck Jynx torquilla at ranges down to 20 metres for about i| hours.
The bird spent all of this period digging out ants’ nests from beneath
patches of short grass and feeding on the ants and larvae. Sometimes
we noticed its throat vibrating rapidly as it ‘sucked up’ the ants
with its tongue, and there were also rapid head movements when its
bill became covered with the food. On three occasions when its bill
seemed full of ants, it slightly opened a wing and thrust its head deep
into its axillary, as if anting. I could never be certain, however,
whether or not it left any ants in the wing-pit; and on no occasion
did it attempt to wipe its bill on its feathers during this operation.
I collected some faeces ejected by the bird and later sent these to
Dr M. C. D. Speight, to whom I am grateful for the analysis which
follows. Bernard King
Gull Cry, g Park Road, Newlyn, Cornwall
The Wryneck faeces examined were entirely composed of cuti-
cular fragments of worker ants of the genus Lasius, together with
incomplete pupal cocoons of the right size, texture and coloration
to be those of worker ants of the same genus. Overwhelmingly abun-
dant were fragments of L. niger (Black Lawn Ant) : the ten drop-
pings (volume c. 1 \ cc) were estimated to contain remains of more
than 800 individuals. These were easily identified from head cap-
sules (see Collingwood 1964), many of which were in good condition
with antennal and cephalic hairs still attached. Remains of speci-
mens of the L. Jlavus (Yellow Ant) group were also present, but in
exceedingly small numbers. It was estimated that the droppings
also contained fragments of some 500 cocoons. No remains of
winged castes were found.
These droppings were very similar in content to those of a Green
Woodpecker Picus viridis examined previously {Brit. Birds, 66 : 33-35),
388
Notes
389
in that both samples contained a vast preponderance of Lasius
remains. The Green Woodpecker pellets , in contrast, contained
remains of another ant genus, Myrmica, which has a much tougher
cuticle than Lasius. It is a pity that no Wryneck pellets were avail-
able for examination, to see if any similar segregation of ant genera
between droppings and pellets occurs in this picid.
M. C. D. Speight
Department of Zoology , Trinity College, Dublin 2
REFERENCE
Colling wood, C. A. 1964. ‘The identification and distribution of British ants’.
Trans. Soc. Brit. Ent., 16: 93-131.
A different type of anting-like behaviour in this species was
described by R. C. Stone (Brit. Birds, 47: 312), and this and other
records of supposed anting by woodpeckers were discussed in a
general review by Dr K. E. L. Simmons (Brit. Birds, 50: 401-424).
It appears, however, that there are no indisputable records of true
anting by non-passerines. Eds
Sedge Warblers singing in fields of rape On 29th May 1974
PFB was surveying a 2 X 2 km square (tetrad) for the Bedfordshire
Atlas near Great Barford when he came across a Sedge Warbler
Acrocephalus schoenobaenus singing persistently from a dry field of oil-
seed rape Brassica napus. The crop wras about 1 J metres high and in
full flower. The field was about 5 ha in extent and the bird was
singing about 30 metres in from the edge. The adjacent field on this
side was simply bare, dry soil, and the only areas of water within
1 km were a few small muddy farm ponds, the nearest 200 metres
away, with which the bird was clearly not associated. On gth June,
when the flowers had nearly all gone, the Sedge Warbler was still
singing at the same spot, and its agitated behaviour when ap-
proached indicated that it probably had a nest there.
JTRS had a similar experience on 27th May 1974, when survey-
ing another tetrad, near Bletsoe, Bedfordshire. In this case, the
Sedge Warbler was also singing from the middle of a completely dry
field of flowering oil-seed rape, 1 1 ha in extent, about 80 metres
from the edge of the field and 400 metres from the nearest water, a
small stream. The uniform nature of the habitat was particularly
striking. The bird was still singing there when the area was revisited
on 8th June, being just visible on the top of one of the rape plants.
This habitat is rapidly increasing in Britain, as a result of the
need for vegetable oil. From 5,000-7,000 ha in 1968-72, the area
devoted to the cultivation of oil-seed rape has increased to some
12,000 ha (provisional) in 1973 (Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries
and Food Annual Returns) and perhaps to treble this in 1974 (Farmers'
39° Notes
Weekly, 80 (no. 9): xv), while it has been forecast that there will
be over 80,000 ha by 1977 [Power Farming, 51 : 10).
Sedge Warblers have been breeding in dry plantations of young
spruces Picea, as well as all kinds of overgrown waste ground, for
several years in Bedfordshire, but this is the first year in which
we have come across them holding territories in cruciferous crops,
or any uniform habitat lacking prominent song posts. It will be
interesting to see whether the habit spreads and if other species
colonise this expanding habitat.
We wish to thank C. J. Mead and, especially, H. J. M. Messer for
their help in obtaining the data on oil-seed rape production in
Britain. P. F. Bonham and J. T. R. Sharrock
11 Rope Walk, Rye, Sussex TN31 7NA
Tree Pipit breeding habitats in Sussex Parslow (1967) con-
cluded that the Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis has gradually declined as a
breeding species in Britain, particularly in the south-east, though
it has benefited locally from the establishment of coniferous plan-
tations. The results of a recent survey in Sussex emphasise the
relative importance of this habitat and may be of more than local
interest. The survey was carried out by members of the Sussex
Ornithological Society during the 1967-70 breeding seasons,
primarily to determine the current distribution and status of the
species in the county, though observers were also asked to report
on the breeding habitat being used. Habitat details were checked
during 1972-73. The methods adopted and full results have been
reported elsewhere (Hughes 1972).
The habitat details provided for 444 territories were as follows:
Habitat No. of territories
Young coniferous plantations 209 (47%)
Commons and heaths 186 (42%)
Deciduous woodlands (outskirts and glades) 22 (5%)
Hillsides, embankments and cuttings 18 (4%)
Rough pastures and lanes with well-wooded perimeters 7 (1.5%)
Recently coppiced sweet chestnut Castanea saliva 2 (0.5%)
Comparison of these findings with a pre-war account of the habitats
occupied in Sussex (Walpole-Bond 1938) suggests that the adapta-
tion to young coniferous plantations has been accompanied by a
decrease in the use of some of the traditional habitats, such as out-
skirts of woodlands and woody glades. Insufficient data are available
for former years to judge whether commons and heaths are used
more, or less, now than in the past, but it is clear that large areas of
these habitats have been lost to reafforestation.
Notes
39*
A small population exists on the rough pastures of the north
escarpment of the chalk downs in West Sussex, but none was found
in similar habitat on railway embankments which were favoured
before the 1939-45 war and which were still occupied in the early
1960’s. In these days of intensive agriculture and mechanical
maintenance of verges, it is not surprising that few territories were
found in tree-lined pastures, lanes and verges. The use of recently
coppiced chestnut was unexpected, and subsequent observations
have suggested that this habitat may be occupied more frequently
than the results indicate.
Lack of comparative figures has made it impossible to determine
the overall effect of the adaptation to young coniferous plantations
on the total populations, but there is some evidence of a wider
distribution on the forest ridges in the north of the county, where
much planting has taken place. S. W. M. Hughes
6 West Way , Slinfold, Horsham , Sussex
REFERENCES
Hughes, S. W. M. 197a. ‘The breding distribution and status of the Tree Pipit
in Sussex’. Sussex Bird Rep. 1 97 1 : 68-79.
Parslow, J. L. F. 1967. ‘Changes in status among breeding birds in Britain and
Ireland: part 6’. Brit. Birds, 60: 493-508 (504-505).
Walpole-Bond, J. 1938. A History of Sussex Birds. London, vol 1.
Starling learning to use its feet while feeding As I have pointed
out elsewhere ( Avic . Mag., 69: 183-193), with the evolution of the
wings for flying, birds were left without prehensile front limbs and
few species employ their wings or even their feet for the simplest
front-leg tasks. The most specialised use of the feet by birds is
in holding objects, including food. This is a basically innate,
species-characteristic habit found only in certain groups including
among the passerines, the crows (Corvidae), birds of paradise (Para-
disaeidae), tits (Paridae), shrikes (Laniidae) and babblers (Timali-
idae). As a species-characteristic behaviour pattern, it does not occur
in starlings (Sturnidae).
On a number of occasions since 1970, however, my wife and I
have seen a Starling Sturnus vulgaris deliberately hold down food in
its feet while feeding on scraps provided on the lawn adjoining our
ground-floor flat in Leicester. This is presumably always the same
individual, as only one bird, out of the many feeding at any one
time, ever behaves in this way. I made brief notes on two occasions
during the past twelve months. On 12th December 1973, although
sometimes pecking and scattering bread in the usual clumsy and
inefficient manner of its kind, it dealt with one piece (about 50
cm square) in a more accomplished way, repeatedly and carefully
placing one foot and then the other on each end and removing frag-
392
Notes
ment after fragment. On gth February 1974 the bird ate a piece of
apple while persistently gripping it and holding it down with one
foot or both. It had been the skilful way in which it similarly dealt
with an apple core that had first drawn our attention to this unusual
bird. Starlings not uncommonly stand or step on large food scraps
incidentally while feeding, but they normally keep the feet well
clear and I have never seen another use its feet in the manner of this
particular individual. Thus, although the Starling does not use
the feet in feeding at the species level, clearly this habit can develop
in an individual, presumably solely through learning.
K. E. L. Simmons
Department of Psychology , The University , Leicester lei 7RH
Letters
Melanism in shearwaters and auks Since Bryan L. Sage
{Brit. Birds, 65: 527) comments on the supposed rarity of melanism
in Manx Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus and indeed theProcellariiformes
in general, it may be worth pointing out that a dark specimen
of the Californian race P. p. opisthomelas was figured by L. M. Loomis
on plate 15 of his classic monograph A Review of the Albatrosses, Petrels
and Diving Petrels (1918, Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., ser. 4, 2, no. 2).
Among closely allied species, melanism is also reported to occur
not uncommonly among Audubon’s Shearwaters P. Iherminieri in the
Lesser Antilles; and indeed, as Loomis remarked (pages 36-37),
within the order as a whole it intergrades from a rare occurrence in
some populations through polychromatism in others to a stable
dark coloration in certain species, including the Sooty Shearwater
P. griseus.
Loomis also showed (fig. 16) a melanistic Guillemot Uria aalge,
and the collection of the British Museum (Natural History) includes
one from near Filey, Yorkshire, dated 24th June 1896, and a mela-
nistic Razorbill Alca torda of unknown origin. Presumably this type of
variation led to the development of the dark plumage of such auks
as the Tufted Puffin Lunda cirrhata. W. R. P. Bourne
The Seabird Group, Department of Zoology, University of Aberdeen,
Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen ABg 2TN
Mr Sage comments that his remarks must now be qualified in the
light of the information supplied by Dr Bourne, to whom he is grate-
ful for pointing out the record in Loomis’ monograph. He was,
however, distinguishing between what might be termed ‘normal’
melanism and ‘abnormal’ melanism. The former refers to the situa-
tion where the species concerned has a melanistic phase as, for
example, in the Wedge-tailed Shearwater P. pacificus. In the latter
category he would include the records of the dark Manx Shear-
Letters
393
water on Skokholm in 1972 and of the melanic specimen of the
Californian race; such ‘abnormal’ melanism in shearwaters does
seem to be very uncommon, though it could easily be overlooked in
the field. Eds
Steppe Eagle in Africa J. F. Reynolds’s remarks (Brit. Birds, 67:
71) on the Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis (or rapax ) orientalis in
east Africa were interesting, but there is more to be said about
the wintering of this curious bird in Africa. He did not allude to
the situation south of the Zambezi River recently elucidated by
Brooke, Grobler, Irwin and Steyn (1972, Occ. Pap. natn. Mus. Rhod.,
B5: 61-114), perhaps because we dealt with an area well to the
south of his. We found that only immature birds come south of the
Zambezi, where they are gregarious in flocks of up to 1 50. They feed
largely on superabundant foods — swarming termite alates, other
swarming insects such as beetles and caterpillars, and nestlings of
the highly colonial Red-billed Quelea Quelea quelea. There is no
evidence for the regular occurrence of immatures in east Africa in
the northern midwinter, though they are common there on south-
ward and northward passages. It appears that the Steppe Eagle is
the only landbird with discrete wintering ranges for adults (east
Africa) and immatures (south-western Africa), and with discrete
wintering ecologies (adults being solitary feeders on vertebrates and
carrion, immatures gregarious feeders on swarming insects and Red-
billed Quelea nestlings). R. K. Brooke
Durban Museum, Smith Street, Durban 4001, Republic of South Africa
Feral populations of parrakeets Most readers will already be
aware that the Ringneck Parrakeet* Psittacula krameri has succeeded
in establishing a feral population in several parts of England, for
example Essex, Kent (two areas) and Surrey (two widely separated
areas) (Brit. Birds, 67: 33, 174). Although escapes may have added
to their number, deliberate liberation has almost certainly been
the main cause.
In my opinion some other species of parrots are equally capable
and the reason for the success of the Ringneck is probably its cheap-
ness, not its greater capacity to survive English winters. Admittedly
we have not recently had a winter harsh enough to put it to a severe
test, but its almost omnivorous readiness to take advantage of food
put out for other birds would undoubtedly ensure its survival except
in quite abnormally prolonged hard weather. The practice of keep-
ing free-flying birds for the pleasure of seeing them around appears
to be growing in favour and the Ringneck, since it is imported in
great numbers and is cheaper than most other similar species, has
•Also known as Ring-necked, Rose-ringed and Green Parrakeet
394
Letters
had a flying start in establishing itself. No one would deny that a
flock of parrots flying round the garden is most attractive; no
serious ornithologists would deny the dangers of such liberations.
At present the number of feral Ringnecks is comparatively small;
at this stage it would not be difficult to stop the nonsense (to put
it at its lowest) of a parrot getting on the British and Irish list, by
trapping and incarcerating them; before long it may be too late.
Our grandchildren will not thank us for a bird which could so
easily become a menace to fruit and other crops, quite apart from
its success in taking over nest-holes needed by other species and
generally becoming an ecological nuisance.
Those who have access to American literature will have seen
that a similar, if not worse, state of affairs is giving cause for alarm
over there. Areas as far apart as south-east Florida, the environs of
New York City and southern California all have increasing problems
with introduced or escaped birds, especially parrots, which have
established themselves in a feral state, in some cases now beyond the
reasonable possibility of control ( Wilson Bull., 85: 491-512).
Many reasons have been advanced for the urgent need to re-
instate the ‘Parrot Ban’ (a former restriction on the importation
into Britain of parrots, rather similar to that currently applying to
birds of prey), among them the obvious conservational one and the
very real danger of ornithosis to human health. A not-to-be-despised
addition to these reasons is the need to prevent Britain from being
overrun by a potential pest, however attractive this pest may appear
to be. M. D. England
Mashobra, Neatishead, Norwich nor 37Z
Black Redstarts breeding in newly developed town centres
According to The Handbook (2: 183), the Black Redstart Phoenicurus
ochruros favours, among other sites, buildings with high roof-lines,
cliffs and rocky and boulder-strewn ground. The association with
power stations and gasworks in Britain has been established by
R. S. R. Fitter (Brit. Birds, 64: 1 17-124), as has the predilection for
bombed buildings and the associated rubbly waste (Brit. Birds, 58:
481-492).
In 1973 singing male Black Redstarts were located in the centres
of Maidenhead and Bracknell, Berkshire. Both towns are fairly
large, the former having a redeveloped centre and the latter being a
‘new town’. In both localities the males sang from high-rise office
buildings. At Maidenhead the male, which was not in adult plum-
age, sang throughout May and four young were successfully fledged
on 26th June. Song was resumed in July and the male was still
present in early August.
There would seem to be plenty of scope for expansion of the small
Letters
395
British breeding population if such sites continue to be used in the
(future. R. E. Youngman
53 Seymour Park Road , Marlow , Buckinghamshire SL7 3ER
Mr Fitter comments that the association with high-rise buildings
is long established, for example on the Senate House tower in
Bloomsbury, London, as far back as 1939. He has not heard of any
other pairs in new town centres, however. Eds
Effects of agricultural change on birds Those of us who expend
much time and energy on promoting the cause of wildlife con-
servation directly to the farming community cannot but be dismayed
by one or two parts of the contribution by Dr R. K. Murton and
N. J. Westwood in the February 1974 issue (Brit. Birds, 67: 41-69).
Their paper is a valuable but needlessly provocative addition to
the somewhat sparse literature on the subject. Was it really so
necessary for the authors to trail their coats over hedges in such a
blatant — some would say irresponsible — way ? To refer to hedgerows
as ‘a red herring so far as the real issues affecting the welfare of birds
in Britain are concerned’ (page 63) in the context of the meagre,
quoted evidence is a truly remarkable statement, particularly in
view of the recent appearance of a pamphlet extolling the virtues of
hedges, emanating from the same ultra-respectable Monks Wood
source.
How fortunate that at Carlton, the main study area, although
hedgerows were ‘lost’ they were not completely eliminated, thus
enabling displaced Blackbirds to nest ‘where the ground vegetation
intermixes with hedgerow stumps’. In large tracts of England,
birds displaced from hedges are less fortunate. One can only assume,
with sadness, that the authors have not travelled widely through
farming country. If they had, they would have seen considerable
areas where, quite literally, hedgerows are the only above-ground
physical feature; not infrequently when they are removed the stumps
are bulldozed and the ditches piped. Over much of arable England,
the scrub, ponds, woodland and natural grassland, on which Dr
Murton and Mr Westwood are so anxious for us to lavish our
attention, are conspicuous by their absence.
There are other general points which should not go unchallenged.
It is implied that the numbers of breeding birds are of slight con-
sequence; it is the diversity of species that matters to the exclusion
of all else. Is it? It may be so in strictly scientific terms, but it is
certainly not the case in terms of practical politics. To an increasing
extent, conservation has to rely on the small individual contribu-
tions from thousands of people who want to see birds. Of only little
comfort to them will be the news that a nucleus of species lies buried
Letters
396
in the depths of Carlton or wherever. If it cannot see the Yellow-
hammers and Linnets regularly and widely, the public may be less
anxious to dig into its pocket. Without this public there would be no
actively managed Havergates, Leighton Mosses and Minsmeres.
Again in a practical context, what a curiously naive injunction
it is ‘to introduce management schemes with defined objectives’
(page 63). Perhaps the authors are unaware that there are around
200,000 farm holdings worthy of the name in England and Wales
and that the conservation camp is in direct contact with only a
minute handful of this number. How attractive it would be if we
could advocate and demonstrate specific management schemes on
an individual basis to fit the circumstances of small groups of
holdings. Unfortunately, all that can be done to exert any significant
influence is to put over, in a ‘blunt instrument’ way, a broad practi-
cal message on as wide a front as possible about the need to retain
physical features within the constraints of modern food production.
In recent years, much has been done to reconcile the interests
of birds and farming: Silsoe, the Dinas and Chalkland exercises,
and all the manifold activities of the Farming and Wildlife Advisory
Group have at least made a dent in the problem. But there is still
much apathy and, regrettably, a strong anti-conservation attitude
within some sections of the farming community. If on the word of
two responsible scientists, given on demonstrably shallow evidence
and without any qualification whatsoever, hedges come to be re-
garded as emotive red herrings of little consequence, then the
authors will, unwittingly, have done a grave disservice to the
conservation cause. Derek Barber
The Manor Farm, Stanley Pontlarge, Winchcombe, Cheltenham, Glouces-
tershire GL54 5HD
Requests for information
Colour-ringed Great Black-backed Gulls A three-year study of the feeding
ecology of the Great Black-backed Gull Larus marinus during 1974-76 includes
the colour-ringing of some 3,600 nestlings at breeding colonies in Orkney with
a two-colour combination on the right leg. In summer 1974 1,200 were thus
ringed, and the recoveries so far suggest dispersal predominantly down the east
coast of Britain. All records of these colour-ringed birds are required; details
should be sent to M. A. S. Beaman, Culterty Field Station, Newburgh, Aber-
deenshire AB4 oAA.
Checklist of the birds of Gibraltar A comprehensive checklist of the birds of
Gibraltar is in preparation by the Gibraltar Ornithological Group. The list will
include all species recorded on or from the Rock. Anyone having unpublished
records for this area is requested to make these known to J. C. Finlayson,
1 Fraser’s Ramp, Gibraltar. All contributions will be fully acknowledged.
News and comment Robert Hudson
Dockland bird reserve The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds has
revealed that it has acquired, on a 21-year lease, 200 hectares of marsh to the
east of Goole, Yorkshire, known as Blacktoft Sands; this land is owned by
the British Transport Docks Board. The RSPB is currently undertaking a census
of the breeding birds there, and drawing up plans for management and visitor
facilities; the Society believes that, with intensive management, this will become
an important wetland reserve. This is the fifth new reserve to be announced this
year by the RSPB, which now has a membership of 160,000 and is responsible for
over 50 bird reserves throughout the United Kingdom.
Release of defence lands In ‘News and comment’ for July 1973 {Brit. Birds, 66:
316), I reported the recommendations of the Nugent Committee that certain
lands held by the Ministry of Defence should be returned to civilian use, including
important tracts at Donna Nook in Lincolnshire, Lulworth Cove in Dorset, and
Wembury and parts of Dartmoor in Devon. After considering the Nugent Report
for a year, the Minister has now announced that he has accepted its recommen-
dations apart from one: despite much local pressure, the Ministry of Defence
is determined to hold on to its coastal strip of 2,800 hectares at Lulworth Cove.
National cagebird exhibition We have been advised that the National Exhibi-
tion of Cage and Aviary Birds, an annual affair, will this year be held in Alexandra
Palace, London, during 6th-8th December. It is reported that changes have been
made to bring more revenue into the ‘National’ and to plough more money back
in special prizes. There was a time when foreign birds figured prominently in
this exhibition, and it was worthwhile for the watcher of wild birds to attend in
order to see which species were being imported that might cause problems as
escapes. However, the foreign classes have been poorly supported in recent years,
so that there has been little to attract the non-aviculturist.
Coins for conservation The International Union for the Conservation of Nature
and the World Wildlife Fund are co-operating in a novel fund-raising project,
announced at a London press conference on 10th June: they are sponsoring an
unprecedented series of legal tender coins to be issued by 24 nations. Each country-
will issue one gold and two silver coins, the designs featuring endangered and
other local animals. This will be the first time in numismatic history that a number
of governments have issued legal tender coins on the same theme and to uniform
dimensions and specifications. In addition to the coins circulated, limited numbers
of sets will be sold to numismatists, and the proceeds of the sales will go towards
conservation programmes carried out by the issuing states and by IUCN/WWF:
the latter will use their portion of the proceeds to set up an endowment fund, the
income from which will finance future conservation operations. All the coins will
be struck at the Royal Mint, London; Spink & Son Ltd (5-7 King Street, London
swi y 6g>s) have been engaged as distributors and will begin accepting orders in
October. (From I.U.C.N. Bulletin, vol. 5, no. 6.)
Survey of Channel Tunnel sites The Nature Conservancy Council, through its
South-east Regional Office at Wye in Kent, and with help from local naturalists
and nature conservation groups, is currently surveying the areas affected by the
proposed Channel Tunnel works around Folkestone and Dover. This survey
covers the location selected for the tunnel’s British terminal at the foot of the North
Downs (near Cheriton), adjacent sites of nature conservation importance, and
the site at Shakespeare Cliff (near Dover) where preliminary tunnelling is now
397
News and comment
398
in progress. It is being made at the request of the Department of the Environment
on behalf of the British Channel Tunnel Company, to assess the plant and animal
communities and physical features in these areas, and ways of protecting them.
Such information will provide a basis for monitoring changes that may arise
from construction work, and for subsequent restoring of affected areas, including
landscaping, soil treatment and planting. The results will be published.
Two recent publications ‘News and comment’ for May 1973 {Brit. Birds, 66:
237) reviewed two booklets treating the birds of the Pennines and of Fairburn
Nature Reserve respectively, both published by Dalesman Publishing Co. Ltd, of
Clapham, via Lancaster. Two more in this series have appeared recently: The
Birds of Morecambe Bay by John Wilson, 62 pages, price 40p; and Lakeland Birds:
a visitors’ handbook by W. R. Mitchell and R. W. Robson (authors of the Pennine
booklet), 96 pages, price 75P. The former concentrates on coastal non-passerines,
and is divided into five chapters: The Bird Species, Food and Feeding Habits,
Migration and Movement, Where to Watch Birds, and Ornithological Importance;
while Lakeland Birds, concerned mainly with the inland lakes and fells of the
Lake District proper, is divided into seven parts : Basic Elements, Old Avifauna,
Typical Nesting Birds, Some Bird Haunts, Migration, A Few Wintering Species,
and Check List. Both of these booklets are likely to appeal most to casual visitors,
to whom the low prices should prove welcome; and both can be recommended
as introductions to the birdlife of their respective areas.
Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds
June reports and spring summary D. A. Christie
These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
In England and Wales divers are of very irregular occurrence in June. Two
Great Northern Divers Gavia irnmer were at Spurn (Yorkshire) on 12th; at
Seaton Sluice (Northumberland) a Black-throated Diver G. arctica flew north
on 8th and a total of seven unidentified divers passed in the same direction between
8th and 22nd; there were five divers on the sea off Ross (also Northumberland)
on 27th; and a Red-throated G. stellata was at Blackpill (Glamorgan) on 10th.
An exceptional inland summer record of Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis concerned one
flying before a thunderstorm on 16th at Bushey (Hertfordshire). A Sooty Shear-
water Puffinus griseus was reported off Calshot (Hampshire) on 23rd, two flew
north at St Mary’s (Northumberland) on 26th, and one north at Seaton Sluice
on 28th.
An immature Purple Heron Ardea purpurea stayed at Minsmere (Suffolk) from
19th to 30th and a sub-adult at Leighton Moss (Lancashire) from 25th June to
26th July. Single Little Egrets Egretta gar zetta were at Stodmarsh (Kent) on 3rd,
North Slob (Co. Wexford) on 6th and Havergate (Suffolk) on 17th; and a White
Stork Ciconia ciconia was also at North Slob on 6th and in the Boyne estuary
(Co. Louth) from 10th to 17th. Further Spoonbills Platalea leucorodia were repor-
ted in June, at Farlington marshes (Hampshire) from 14th to 18th, at Minsmere
on 1 8th and 29th and at Stodmarsh on 22nd. Velvet Scoters Melanitta fusca,
unusual inshore in summer, were recorded at three places, the largest party
being 1 7 off Minsmere on 9th. A drake King Eider Somateria spectabilis appeared
at Fair Isle (Shetland) from 2nd to 4th, a Brent Goose Branta bemicla at Bally-
kelly (Co. Londonderry) on 30th and a Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus at the same
place on 1st, while three more Whoopers (probably flightless through injury)
were at Berwick-upon-Tweed (Northumberland) on 30th.
399
June reports and spring summary
A Red Kite Milvus milvus appeared over Shrewsbury (Shropshire) on 20th, at a
most unusual time of year for a bird to wander such a distance from its Welsh
breeding grounds, and Honey Buzzards Pernis apivorus occurred at Hornsea Mere
(Yorkshire) on 1st (two) and at Teesside (Co. Durham) on 20th. There was the
usual scattering of Marsh Harriers Circus aeruginosas away from known breeding
sites, including one as far north as Fettercairn (Kincardineshire) on 4th, and
a Montagu’s C. pygargus was seen at Spurn on 6th. The only Osprey Pandion
haliaetus reported south of the Scottish border was one seen on several occasions
during June and July at Rudyard Lake, north of Leek (Staffordshire). Red-
footed Falcons Falco vespertinus were reported at Bury St Edmonds (Suffolk) and
Sandwich Bay (Kent), both during ist-2nd, near Ipswich (Suffolk) on 7th, at
Dungeness (Kent) for a few days from 7th, at Wells (Norfolk) on 16th, and ‘in
Essex’ late in the month.
A Quail Coturnix coturnix on Fair Isle on 2nd was the only 1974 spring record
there. Kentish Plovers Charadrius alexandrinus appeared at Minsmere on 4th and
at Cley (Norfolk) on 23rd, and a vagrant Woodcock Scolopax rusticola on Fair
Isle on i ith. On 22nd a Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis in summer plumage
arrived at Belvide Reservoir, the 19th British record. A Little Stint Calidris minutus
at Blithfield Reservoir (Staffordshire) on 2nd, two at Cley on 3rd and one at
Washington (Co. Durham) on 3rd and 4th were probably late spring migrants,
as were Temminck’s C. temminckii at Cley between 1st and 7th (up to five), at
Minsmere on 2nd, and at Cresswell (Northumberland) on 6th (two). A Curlew
' Sandpiper C. ferruginea was at Blackpill on 2nd. Pectoral Sandpipers C.
melanotos appeared at Minsmere on 6th and 7th and at Gunthorpe (Nottingham-
shire) on 8th and 9th. An adult Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola fcdcinellus in
summer plumage was at Greenabella Marsh, Teesmouth, from 23rd to 29th, and
Red-necked Phalaropes Phalaropus lobatus at Rye Harbour (Sussex) on 7th and
8th and at Cley from 18th to 23rd. There were several sightings of Avocets
. Recurvirostra avosetta away from breeding sites; a flock of 16 was at Pennington
marshes (Hampshire) on 16th, four came in to Steart (Somerset) from the west
on 22nd and nine were at Eling great marsh (Hampshire) on 23rd.
A very out-of-season Ivory Gull Pagophila eburnea was reported at Breydon
Water (Norfolk) on 26th, while Glaucous Larus hyperboreus and Mediterranean
1 Gulls L. melanocephalus, which have become much commoner in Britain and Ire-
land in recent years, were widely scattered in very small numbers. Up to 23 Little
Gulls L. minutus were at Teesmouth during June. A Caspian Tern Hydroprogne
caspia appeared at Chesil Beach (Dorset) on 16th and one at Milford-on-Sea
(Hampshire) on 22nd, while Roseates Sterna dougallii were seen inland at Blith-
field Reservoir on 2nd and at Netherfield (Nottinghamshire) on 23rd.
An Alpine Swift Apus melba appeared on Ramsey Island (Pembrokeshire) on
28th (cf. Brit. Birds, 66: 370) and a Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea stayed at
Coatham marsh, Redcar (Yorkshire), from 21st and throughout July. Hoopoes
Upupa epops were seen in Norfolk at Rockland Broad on 3rd and Salthouse Heath
on 9th. A Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus was on Alderney on 2nd and 9th and two
were reported from Walberswick (Suffolk) on 8th and 9th, and we also heard of a
sighting near Tenterden (Kent) on 25th. A Jay Garrulus gland arius arrived at Spurn
on 1 st and a Hooded Crow Corvus corone comux on 8th. Single Fieldfares Turdus
pilaris were found at six places in England, Redwings T. iliacus at three, the latter
including a singing male at Minsmere on 25th. A Thrush Nightingale Luscinia
luscinia trapped on Fair Isle on 15th was the latest ever spring record there and the
2 1st for Britain and Ireland at that season. Fair Isle also recorded a Bluethroat
L. svecica on 3rd and single Marsh Warblers Acrocephalus palustris on nth and
15th; a Bluethroat inland at Ditchford (Northamptonshire) on 27th was surpris-
ing. A Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides was singing in the observatory
garden on the Calf of Man on 19th, a week after a Wood Warbler P. sibilatrix
400
June reports and spring summary
had been trapped on the island. A Black-headed Wagtail Motacilla flava feldegg
was seen on Thorney Island (Sussex) on 23rd. A Great Grey Shrike Lanius
excubitorat Chamberlayne’s Heath, near Wareham (Dorset), on 16th was probably
of southern origin ; single Lesser Grey Shrikes L. minor were found not long after
on Unst (Shetland) on 19th, on Fair Isle from 24th to 28th and at Billingham
(Co. Durham) from 29th to 3rd July, and Woodchat Shrikes L. senator were seen
at Padbury (Buckinghamshire) on 5th, on Lundy (Devon) on 20th and on St
Agnes (Scilly) from 27th to 30th. A Rose-coloured Starling Sturnus roseus
appeared at Methlick (Aberdeenshire) on 17th (this species occurs surprisingly
frequently in summer in north Scotland). Finally, two reports of Scarlet Rose-
finches Carpodacus erythrinus concerned an adult male at Sheringham (Norfolk)
early in the month and a female or immature, trapped, on Fair Isle on 15th and
16th.
Spring migration
Some of the main movements during the period from the end of March to the
beginning of June are summarised here. A warm spell in the last week of March
was short-lived and April was a cold, dry month of anticyclonic weather with
winds between north and south-east, inhibiting immigration to a large extent.
May began with easterlies, producing abnormal passage of some species in the
English Channel, while southerlies which followed allowed a relatively easy, though
late, entry into Britain and northern Europe. Similar late and slow migration
was recorded in southern Europe, caused by unfavourable weather in the Medi-
terranean and in Africa.
SEABIRDS, SCOTERS AND SOME WADER FLOCKS
A maximum of 1 ,975 Manx Shearwaters Puffmus puffinus was recorded at Portland
Bill (Dorset) on 1st May and small northerly movements were recorded on the east
coast later in that month. (Omitted from the April summary were two Cory’s
Shearwaters Calonectris diomedea and a Sooty, reported off Rye Harbour on 26th.)
Easterly passage of Common Scoters Melanitta nigra on the south coast was noted
mainly at Dungeness and Beachy Head (Sussex) : at the former promontory 2,500
were counted in two hours on 10th April, the main passage being between 1st
and 1 8th May with a peak of 1,700 on 4th; while at Beachy Head the peaks were
2,956 on 1 2th April and 1,585 on 4th May. Inland passage was primarily in the
second half of April, with highest numbers between 15th and 20th — eleven at
Eye Brook Reservoir (Leicestershire) on 15th, eleven at Staines Reservoir (Middle-
sex) on 17th, again eleven at Blithfield Reservoir on 20th, and 17 at Ogston
Reservoir (Derbyshire), also on 20th.
The annual roost of Whimbrels Numenius phaeopus at Steart peaked at about
950 on 3rd May. On the Isle of Sheppey (Kent) 490 Black-tailed Godwits
Limosa limosa were counted on 11th April, the only number of any significance.
Record numbers of Bar-tailed Godwits L. lapponica were noted on the south
coast between mid-April and mid-May, the extraordinary total of 10,027 passing
east off Hurst/Pennington (Hampshire) in this period; the peak came on 21st
April, with 3,090 at Hurst/Pennington, 909 off Gilkicker/Hill Head (also Hamp-
shire), 1,060 at Beachy Head and 2,225 at Dungeness. Abnormal numbers of
Avocets were noted during April and May, the species being recorded in eleven
coastal counties from Glamorgan to Co. Durham and in five inland counties.
Three main passages were evident, during 2nd-ioth April, 2ist-28th April and
3rd-6th May, and of particular note were flocks of 27 at Cley and 17 at Teesmouth
on 4th May.
SKUAS, GULLS AND TERNS
Skuas, terns and Little Gulls were noted in high numbers and heavy passage of
40i
June reports and spring summary
some species was recorded on 3rd*4th May when exceptionally large movements
were seen. The main passage of Arctic Skuas Stercorarius parasiticus took place
during 2nd- 14th May, with peaks on 3rd and pth-ioth: at Hurst/Pennington there
were 27 on 3rd and 20 on 9th; at Gilkicker/Hill Head 24 on 3rd and twelve on
gth; at Beachy Head 132 east during May, with 18 on 3rd and 22 on 10th; and at
Dungeness a maximum of 26 on 9th. On 3rd May the record passage of Little
1 Gulls became evident: at Portland Bill over 100 passed east, at Hurst /Pennington
315, and at Gilkicker/Hill Head 152 ; and on 4th 148 were counted at Beachy Head
and 355 at Dungeness. Inland there were 86 at Cheddar Reservoir (Somerset) and
over 15 at Blithfield Reservoir on 4th, and 20 at Pitsford Reservoir (Northampton-
shire) on 5th.
The main passage of Black Terns Chlidonias niger took place on 3rd, 9th and
1 5th- 1 8th May, the highest counts being on 3rd when there were 120 at Hurst/
Pennington. Comraon/Arctic Terns Sterna hirundotparadisaea followed a similar
pattern on the south coast. Although there was a large passage during the last
ten days of April, with heavy movement north in the Bristol Channel followed by-
counts of 40 or more at several Midland reservoirs, 3rd May witnessed exceptionally
large numbers. At Portland Bill 2,000 or more were counted on that date, at Hurst/
Pennington 3,530, at Gilkicker/Hill Head 2,805, at Beachy Head 2,371 (1,192 on
4th) and at Dungeness 3,600 (2,700 on 4th and 1,200 on 5th). A notable inland
passage of Arctic Terns occurred between 19th and 28th April: the largest flocks
were 22 at Pitsford Reservoir on 19th, 17 at Eye Brook Reservoir on 19th, 17 at
Blunham gravel pits (Bedfordshire) on 22nd (with 33 there on 23rd) and 28 at
Ogston Reservoir on 26th (with 37 there on 28th) ; another movement was apparent
during 3rd-5th May, with 15 at Attenborough and 48 at Gunthorpe (both Notting-
hamshire) on 3rd, 25-30 at Cliffe (Kent) on 4th (when it was estimated that 25%
of the 2,700 ‘Commie’ Terns at Dungeness were Arctic), and 15 at Staunton Harold
(Derbyshire) and over 37 at Steart on 5th. Later there were 37 at Belvide Reservoir
on 25th May. Passage of Little Terns S. albi/rons was small, 157 at Dungeness on
4th May being the peak, and likewise the highest counts of Sandwich Terns
S. sandvicensis on passage were of only 447 at Beachy Head on 28th April and 358
there on 10th May.
WRYNECKS AND PASSERINES
There was a distinct passage of Wrynecks Jynx torquilla on the east coast from
27th April to about 7th May, particularly during 28th-30th. About 60 individuals
were noted altogether, with peaks on Fair Isle of six on 30th April, eight on
3rd and nine on 6th May; the island’s last spring record was on 5th June.
A total of 2,200 Fieldfares was counted on the Ouse Washes (Cambridgeshire/
Norfolk) on 19th April, the day before a fall of 360 at Bempton (Yorkshire); on
26th a huge movement involved over 10,000 passing north over Cambo (Northum-
berland) in half an hour, and the next day 1,500 arrived on Fair Isle and left later in
the evening; 2,400 flew north at Bempton in two hours on 30th, and between 3rd
and 6th May a very large exodus occurred on Fair Isle, with a maximum of 3,000
on 3rd. Another influx on Fair Isle on 30th April produced over 350 Robins
Erithacus rubecula, 60 Dunnocks Prunella modularis, 90 Bramblings Fringilla
montifringilla and 25 Reed Buntings Emberiza schoeniclus.
Peak passage of Firecrests Regultis ignicapillus was noted in Kent at the end
of the third week of March, with maxima of ten at Sandwich Bay on 21st and 15 at
Dungeness on 23rd. Goldcrests R. regulus followed a few days later: 20 daily
at Sandwich Bay from 21st, a maximum of 17 on Fair Isle on 23rd, an arrival of
over 50 at Spurn on 25th, and peaks of 40 at Dungeness on 26th and of 150 on the
Calf of Man the next day, with comparable counts at several localities during
the first half of April. On 17th April a huge southerly movement of Chaffinches
F. coelebs at Spurn involved many more than 1,000 birds, while on Bardsey (Caern-
402
June reports and spring summary
arvonshire) the largest fall of Phylloscopus warblers was of 400 on 22nd April.
Apart from a female trapped on the Calf of Man on 26th May, all reports of
migrant Red-backed Shrikes Lanius collurio were from the east coast: a pair at
Minsmere on 17th May, one at Spurn on 30th and the first five spring migrants at
Fair Isle on 31st, later than usual; in June there were records on Fair Isle on 14
days up to 20th, with a peak of eight on 4th, and singles at Spurn on 8th-gth
and 14th, Hornsea Mere on 16th and near Matfen (Northumberland) from 30th
into July.
SOME EARLY ARRIVALS AND INFLUXES
Garganey Anas querquedula Two early arrivals at King George VI Reservoir
(Middlesex) on 2nd March, followed by a small passage in southern England on
8th and 9th; a few more until an influx during the last week. Small steady arrival
through April.
Hobby Falco subbuteo The first at Warsash (Hampshire) on 6th April, followed by
one at Belvide Reservoir on 1 3th and three more in the last six days of that month.
Widespread influx in May, as usual, with reports from nearly 30 places in Britain.
Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius After the overwintering records (Brit.
Birds, 67: 176, 220), one at Brandon (Warwickshire) on 4th March and another in
Worcestershire on 10th were the first migrants. About half a dozen more until a
small influx on 30th-3ist. Main arrivals in April between 5th and 10th and from
19th.
Whimbrel JVumenius phaeopus One at Pegwell Bay (Kent) on 5th March may have
wintered. Small parties of up to five reported in last six days of that month from
the south and west, while 50 in high from the south at Steart on 31st were the
vanguard of the annual large movement of Icelandic birds. In April very few until
13th, then steady numbers through to end of month.
Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos One at Calshot on 9th March and five at
Dartford (Kent) on 10th were considered to be migrants. Eight reports between
6th and 1 ith April, and main arrival from 14- 15th involving small numbers.
Greenshank T. nebularia A small spring passage from 2nd April with no parti-
cular pattern.
Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus The first reported to us was noted at Weeting
Heath (Norfolk) on 1st April, four having returned by 12th. Two at Cheesefoot
Head (Hampshire) on 17th.
Black Tern Chlidonias niger One at ClifFe on nth and 14th April, one flying
east at Steart on 20th, and one at Langley Mill Flash (Derbyshire) on 21st; see
also page 401.
Common Tern Sterna hirundo First at Pennington marshes on 6th April; small
numbers then until May, but 50 back at Minsmere by end of April.
Roseate Tern S. dougallii One in the Exe estuary (Devon) and another at Eye
Brook Reservoir on 27th were the only April records; about 22 more were reported
in May.
Little Tern S. albifrons First at Pennington marshes and at Arne (Dorset) on
6th; very few more in April and only 15 back at Minsmere by end of month.
Sandwich Tern S. sandvicensis Four exceptionally early February records have
already been mentioned (Brit. Birds, 67: 220). In March one at Arne on 14th
and nearby Poole on 16th. A dozen or so during the last week and a small arrival
during April, with 400 at Minsmere by end of month.
Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur One at Bromley Common (Kent) on 24th March
was exceptionally early and may have overwintered (cf. Brit. Birds, 67: 132, 176).
In April reported from Suffolk at Westerfield on 8th and Aldeburgh on 9th. Two
June reports and spring summary 403
more on 13th and small numbers from 19th. Earlier than average but numbers
small.
(.Cuckoo Cuculus canorus First at Congresbury (Somerset) on 4th April; two in
Kent on 7th. Influxes during 9th- 13th and main arrival from 17th- 19th, with
widespread records by end of month.
SSwift A pus apus Later than usual. One at Folkestone (Kent) on 14th April and
one at Luton (Bedfordshire) on 16th. Only about 35 more reported during April
and main arrival, very sudden, on gth-ioth May.
V Wryneck Jynx torquilla First arrivals on 17 th April — one in west Kent and two
in Leicestershire. Singles at Beachy Head on 20th and 24th (see also page 401).
^Swallow Hirundo rustica In March reported from Sutton Bingham Reservoir
(Dorset/Somerset) on 23rd, Dunton Green (Kent) on 27th and Foxcote (Berkshire)
on 28th (two). Definite influx 7th- 14th April and major arrivals from 18th (notice-
ably late).
IHouse Martin Delichon urbica One at Folkestone on 26th March and two at
Donaghadee (Co. Down) on 31st. Remarkably few during April with small arrival
ioth-i5th, but main arrival in May (again very late).
) 'Sand Martin Riparia riparia As with last species, many fewer than average until
May. March records from Warwickshire, Worcestershire and Kent on 19th, eleven
at Lough Beg (Co. Antrim/Co. Londonderry) on 24th, and very small numbers
widely scattered during the last ten days. A small April passage was at its height in
the middle of the month.
I I Ring Ouzel Turdus torquatus After one reported from Kent in February (Brit.
Birds, 67: 220) the first was one at Holme (Norfolk) on 17th March. A widespread
influx from 24th included a fall of 22 on the Calf of Man on 26th, and there
«wcre later arrivals through April, particularly during the last six days with
30 males at Warlingham (Surrey) on 27th and 27 at Winterton (Norfolk) on 30th.
1 Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe One in Guernsey on 2nd March and another at Sand
I Point (Somerset) on 5th. Main arrival a little early from 19th March when as
many as twelve at Papplewick Moor (Nottinghamshire). Large influxes from 23rd,
on 24th 60 at Portland Bill and 20 at Porthgwarra (Cornwall), and on 26th 200
on the Calf of Man.
’Whinchat Saxicola rubetra A male at Pensford, Bristol, and a pair at Teflon t
Down, near Wylye (Wiltshire), on 19th March, two at Tring (Hertfordshire) on
2 1st and one at Foreness Point (Kent) on 25th. Reported from only about 20 places
in April, including one on 7th at Lunan Water (Kincardineshire), very far north
for so early a date, and main arrival in May.
1 Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus One at Bletchingley (Surrey) on 23rd March,
at Crowthorne (Berkshire) on 28th and Coombe Hill (Gloucestershire) on 30th.
Again very few in April and main arrival much later than usual, in May.
Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos First at Clifie on 12 th April, and about 14
more to end of month.
) I Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia First at Allscott Sugar Factory (Shrop-
shire) on ist April, and two in Derbyshire on 8th. Scattered singletons until a
few more in the last two days of April. Much scarcer than usual.
Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus Very few in April and main arrival in
first week of May.
Sedge Warbler A. schoenobaenus First noted at Stodmarsh on 2nd and Tring on
3rd. Steady arrival through April but again most came in during May.
Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla Winter records make assessment difficult but there
was apparendy a small arrival during the last week of March and a distinct
arrival during 7th- 17th April.
404 June reports and spring summary
Garden Warbler S. borin An exceptionally early bird at Old Winchester Hill
(Hampshire) on 1 7th March may have overwintered. One at Doynton (Gloucester-
shire) on 24th and another at Rye Harbour on 30th. Extremely few in April, with
arrival not really commencing until early to mid-May.
Whitethroat S. communis Four at Allscott Sugar Factory on 1st April. Very few
more until a small influx during 27th-30th.
Lesser Whitethroat S. curruca One at Sandy (Bedfordshire) on 3rd April. Very
few more until main arrival, like that of most other warblers, in early to mid-May.
Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus An early bird at Finmere (Oxfordshire)
on 7th March was presumed to be wintering, otherwise the first was at Leamington
(Warwickshire) on 20th. Generally an early arrival from 24th March, including
the earliest ever for some places. A heavy arrival during the first half of April,
particularly 4th-ioth, with birds reported as common in many places by 20th.
Falls of 100 at Beachy Head on 22nd, in Scilly on 29th and on the Calf of Man on
30th.
Chiflfchaflf P. collybita Two at Graveney (Kent) on 2nd March, possibly migrants.
Twenty-one more reported until major arrivals from 23rd, a few days later than
average. A fall of about 40 at Porthgwarra on 24th and the first 30 on the Calf
of Man on 26th.
Wood Warbler P. sibilatrix One reported at Graveney on 2nd April but only a few
isolated reports during the rest of the month.
Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata The first at Wrockwardine wood (Shrop-
shire) on 10th April, one at Mereworth (Kent) on 12th, and three more between
28th and 30th.
Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca One at Ruxley (Kent) on 8th April and one at
Ynys-hir (Cardiganshire) on nth. About 14 more from 17th to end of month.
Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis One at Wade (Kent) on 30th March. Two in first
week of April, small influx 9th- 12th, and steady small arrival through the rest
of that month.
White Wagtail Motacilla a. alba One at Lightshaw Hall Flash (Lancashire) on 7th
March and another at Staunton Harold on 8th. Many more from 10th, then a steady
arrival through April, including maxima of 29 at Ainsdale/Marshside (Lancashire)
on 2 1st and 60 in the Bann estuary (Go. Londonderry) on 28th.
Yellow Wagtail M. flava A very early bird at Clipstone (Nottinghamshire) on
1 7th March and one at Steart on 30th. A small arrival in first week of April and
major influx 9th- 14th, continuing steadily through the rest of April.
STOP PRESS
Recent reports (all September) include: a Buff-breasted Sandpiper at Sidlesham
Ferry (Sussex) on 9th, six at Portland on 12th, and about six on St Mary’s
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to 1 ith; a Spotted Sandpiper on St Mary’s until about 10th; a Long- billed Dow-
itcher at Rodbourne sewage farm, near Swindon (Wiltshire) from 13th to 23rd;
Sabine’s Gulls at Ferrybridge (Dorset) on 7th, Scilly on 10th (two) and Dungeness
on 13th; Cetti’s Warblers at Beachy Head on 1 5th and at Marazion (Cornwall) on
1 6th ; a Bonelli’s Warbler on St Agnes on nth; about twelve Tawny Pipits on the
south and south-east coasts; three Serins on St Mary’s on 15th; and a notable
influx ofWrynecks during I4th-i5th, with at least ten in the Portland/Hengistbury
area.
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Volume 67 Number 9 September 1974
361 Feeding ecology of the Long-eared Owl in Britain and Ireland
David E. Glue and Geoffrey J. Hammond
370 Studies of less familiar birds 173 Icterine Warbler Dr Geoffrey
Beven and lb Trap-Lind Plates 52-54
376 The Crag Martin in winter quarters at Gibraltar N. Elkins and
CpI B. Etheridge Plate 55
Notes
388 Great Spotted Woodpecker tapping on window pane Peter Smith
388 Anting-like behaviour and food of Wryneck Bernard King, and Dr
M. C. D. Speight
389 Sedge Warblers singing in fields of rape P. F. Bonham and Dr
J. T. R. Sharrock
390 Tree Pipit breeding habitats in Sussex 5. W. M. Hughes
391 Starling learning to use its feet while feeding Dr K. E. L. Simmons
Letters
392 Melanism in shearwaters and auks Dr W. R. P. Bourne
393 Steppe Eagle in Africa R. K. Brooke
393 Feral populations of parrakeets M. D. England
394 Black Redstarts breeding in newly developed town centres R. E.
Youngman
395 Effects of agricultural change on birds Derek Barber
Requests for information
396 Colour-ringed Great Black-backed Gulls M. A. S. Beaman
396 Checklist of the birds of Gibraltar J. C. Finlayson
397 News and comment Robert Hudson
398 June reports and spring summary D. A. Christie
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Volume 67 Number 10 October 1974
PALEARCTIC RECORDS OF
ALLEN’S GALLINULE
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Wolume 67 Number 10 October 1974
Allen’s Gallinule in Britain and the Palearctic
Robert Hudson
INTRODUCTION
Allen’s Gallinule Porphyrula alleni, a tropical African bird, has but
once been obtained in Britain: off the Suffolk coast in January 1902.
The species was not then admitted to the British and Irish list; there
was some incredulity at the concept of a tropical species ‘migrating’
north into the European winter, while a reputed escape possibility
was the official reason given for exclusion (British Ornithologists’
Union 1915). In recent decades much more has been learnt about
this species’ annual cycle, and about bird movements in relation to
weather. At my request, the BOU Records Committee recently
reconsidered the record, and has now accepted it for the British
and Irish list, in category b since it is more than 50 years old. The
main purpose of this note is to outline the evidence on which the
1 record is now accepted; as this in part involves comparison with
other European occurrences, the opportunity has been taken to
bring together details of all Palearctic records, which are scattered
in the literature.
It is outside the scope of this text to cover field identification
aspects. Allen’s Gallinule is essentially a small version of the American
Purple Gallinule P. martinica, the latter being described and figured
in several recent British bird books; both are illustrated in Heinzel
et at. (1972). P. alleni has a total length of 24-25 cm and wing
measurement of 140-160 mm, while P. martinica is 30-35 cm long
and with a wing length of 165-185 mm.
405
406
Allen’s Gallinule in the Palearctic
THE SUFFOLK RECORD
This Suffolk occurrence was first published by Gurney (1902), who
identified the bird from skins and books lent by Professor Alfred
Newton. On the morning of 1st January 1902, a juvenile Allen’s
Gallinule was captured alive when it alighted in an exhausted state
on a fishing boat off the village of Hopton; there had been high
winds from the south-west the previous day, though by the 1st the
wind had moderated a little and veered WSW. The distance from
the coast at which the bird was captured was not stated; but since
it was recorded as off the little village of Hopton, rather than off
the towns of Lowestoft or Great Yarmouth, it must have been quite
close inshore. The bird was taken to a Great Yarmouth taxidermist,
who kept it alive for two days. It was then preserved, and passed
into the collection of J. B. Nichols, where it remained for over 25
years; but its present whereabouts are unknown to me.
Gurney ascertained that no Allen’s Gallinules had been lost from
the Woburn ornamental collection in Bedfordshire. However, it is
known that in the early years of the century small numbers were
imported from time to time, and kept by the London Zoo and several
wealthy landowner-aviculturists (M. D. England in litt.), though
possibly dealers might have been less interested in importing the
dowdy juvenile than the brightly coloured adult. Gurney noted that
the plumage of the Suffolk specimen showed no traces of captivity.
It is not unreasonable to suppose that large birds imported by com-
mercial dealers would have shown physical signs of close confine-
ment, since at that period tropical birds inevitably experienced a
lengthy sea voyage in transit. As a juvenile, the Suffolk bird could
not have moulted in captivity. Publication of the record in The
Zoologist, abstracted in the Avicultural Magazine for March 1902,
failed to produce any reports of losses. Thus I do not believe that
there is any particular reason to suppose that this bird was an escape ;
indeed, for a juvenile to be found exhausted on a boat after a
southerly gale constitutes a set of circumstances more indicative of
genuine vagrancy. Ticehurst (1932) eschewed square-brackets for
this record; Witherby et at. (1941) referred to it in neutral terms,
pointing out other occurrences the same year in Tunisia and
Morocco; while Bannerman (1963) recommended complete
acceptance.
OTHER PALEARCTIC OCCURRENCES
There are now 19 Palearctic specimen records of Allen’s Gallinule;
these are set out in table 1, and then summarised by age class and
month of occurrence in table 2. Additionally, there are bald
assertions, lacking any detail, of the species’ past occurrence in
Madeira (Harcourt 1855) and Algeria (Loche 1858) ; these may have
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30 Dec 1929 Silkeborg (Skandcrborg), Jutland, Denmark Knudsen 1930, Salomonsen 1963
I Jan 1902 offHopton (Suffolk), England Gurney 1902
4-08 Allen's Gallinule in the Palearctic
Table 2. Breakdown of Palearctic specimen records of Allen’s Gallinule
Porphyrula alleni according to age and time of year
‘Nearly adult’ was not defined by the author concerned (Arrigoni degli Oddi 1929)
TIME OF YEAR
Plumage Unknown ‘Autumn’ Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb May totals
Immature 1 2 - 1 1 1 2 1 9
‘Nearly adult’ - — — — 2 — - - 2
Adult — - 1 1 4 — — — 6
Unspecified - — - - 2 - — - 2
totals 1 2 1 2 9 1 2 1 19
been genuine, but do not meet modern standards in authentication.
From the tables, it may be seen that Palearctic records have
involved rather more immatures than adults; while, of 16 dated
records, no fewer than 14 fell between November and early February,
with an obvious peak in December. The Suffolk record conforms to
these patterns, while the occurrence of another immature in the
Azores only five weeks later confirms northward vagrancy by the
species that season. In all, there were five Palearctic records of
Allen’s Gallinule in 1902 (one in January, one in February, and
three in December) ; it seems unlikely to have been a coincidence
that over 25% of all such occurrences should fall within one year,
but the ultimate factors responsible are unknown; little scientific
work was being done in the northern tropics of Africa before the
First World War. Now that there are accepted records from Brittany,
Bavaria and Denmark, the Suffolk one is no longer the unique
occurrence for temperate Europe that it was in 1902.
That species in the family Rallidae are particularly susceptible
to long-distance vagrancy is a point now so widely appreciated as
not to require full documentation. Certainly the appearances of
Allen’s Gallinule in Europe are no more remarkable than the
wanderings of the congeneric American Purple Gallinule to New-
foundland, Greenland, Norway, England, Switzerland, the Azores,
Liberia, Ascension, St Helena, South Africa, Tristan da Cunha,
and even South Georgia in the Antarctic.
THE AFRICAN SITUATION
Allen’s Gallinule breeds in Madagascar and over much of tropical
Africa north to Senegal, the Niger Inundation Zone, Lake Chad basin,
and Upper Nile in Sudan; but not on the Mascarene island of Mauri-
tius as sometimes stated (Benson 1971). The nature of its normal
migrations and dispersals is not properly understood, as is so often
the case with African species. It appears to be mainly a rains
migrant in southern Africa (Brooke 1968), and this is probably
Allen's Gallinule in the Palearctic
409
true f or much of the northern tropics also. In Nigeria it is widespread
and common in the wet season (breeding mainly from July to Sep-
tember) ; in the dry season records are few and sporadic, though it
occurs on flooded ground in the Lake Chad area until December
(Elgood et al. 1973). In the Cameroons, Serle (1954) found it in all
months except August to November, and he shot a fat female on rst
December which seemed to be a migrant. These observations suggest
northward movement in the rains from the Cameroons to Nigeria
where, however, some birds apparently remain on suitable per-
manent waters in the dry season. That Allen’s Gallinule is an
inveterate wanderer is indisputable. Apart from the Palearctic
records in table 1, it has occurred on Ascension and St Helena in the
South Atlantic (Lowe 1924, Kinnear 1943, Olson 1973), which are
1,600 and 1,900 km respectively from the nearest points of the
African continent; on various Gulf of Guinea islands (Fry 1961);
and in the Indian Ocean on the Comoro Islands (Benson i960) and
isolated Rodriguez Island (Bourne 1968), the latter being 1,500 km
east of Madagascar.
In his account of the Suffolk record, Gurney (1902) felt that the
month of occurrence might weigh against it, though he knew of
December records from the Mediterranean; contemporary orni-
thologists could not understand why a tropical species should travel
north into the European winter, and I have no doubt that this was
a factor which helped to keep Allen’s Gallinule off the British and
Irish list then. Nowadays we have a better understanding of the
involuntary processes which lead to vagrancy. This can be caused
through reversed migration, that is, moving in the opposite direction
to the appropriate one for the season; or through disorientation,
perhaps due to overcast conditions blotting out visual clues and
resulting in downwind drift; or through simply being blown off-
course by winds of opposing direction and greater speed than the
bird’s airspeed.
We now know that it is usual for Palearctic records of this species
to fall in the first half of the northern winter (table 2) ; and indeed
this is the season when informed ornithologists, armed with modern
knowledge, would expect them. South of the Sahara, breeding and
migration seasons are regulated not by temperature or day length,
but by seasonality of rainfall; waterbirds tend to breed in the later
part of the rains and just after, when watery areas are most extensive
(Moreau 1950), and then dispersive elements move away for the
duration of the dry season. In the northern tropics, Allen’s Gallinules
are at peak breeding activity from July to September; between
latitudes 8CN and 20CN the dry season is pronounced from December
to March, and I have already quoted references that specifically
mentioned December in connection with the species’ disappearance
410
Allen’s Gallinule in the Pale arc tic
from Lake Chad and arrival in the Cameroons. Thus events in
the annual cycle of Allen’s Gallinule occur two to three months
later than in those of north-temperate zone Rallidae.
There is some evidence, mainly from Nigeria, that in the northern
tropics migrants return from April-May (Elgood and Sibley 1964,
Dowsett 1968); and in this connection it should be noted that the
one atypically dated Palearctic specimen was taken in Italy on
9th May.
METEOROLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Knowing that Allen’s Gallinule does straggle to the (mainly south-
western) Palearctic Region, the question arises whether the pattern
of weather over western Europe in the closing days of 1901 was
consistent with onward drift into higher latitudes. On this point I
sought the advice of David E. Pedgley, who until recently was
editor of the journal Weather. He drew my attention to the Historical
Weather Maps series, drawn in retrospect and published in the USA
during the Second World War; copies of these are held in the
Meteorological Office Library at Bracknell, Berkshire, and they
give adequate coverage for the period relevant to the present
discussion. The following is based on information extracted by Mr
Pedgley.
From 15th December 1901 there was a large anticyclone well to
the north over the mid-Atlantic, moving to a more normal position
near the Azores by the 19th. This gave northerly- type weather over
Britain and Ireland and the north-west Atlantic, but westerly
weather spread across by the 23rd. In particular, a vigorous depres-
sion moved north-eastwards to north-west Scotland during 29th-
31st December, with winds widely strong to gale force. During the
same three days the Azores anticyclone split into two: one cell
moved west into the Atlantic, while the other moved east to Algeria
and then southern Europe. Such a splitting is not a common event
(it had not occurred during the previous six weeks), and it allowed
the development of south-easterly winds across Morocco, turning
through south to south-west as they approached France and Britain
within the warm sector of the depression off Scotland. The associated
cold front was slow-moving, with waves over central Britain
during 30th-3ist, but it had cleared south-east England by 1st
January; hence the reported decrease and veering of the wind
between 31st December and 1st January, referred to by Gurney in
his original account of the Suffolk record. Thus there was an anti-
cyclone temporarily over Algeria, and strong south-westerly winds
between it and Britain, conditions eminently suitable for downwind
drift from the western Mediterranean Basin to southern England.
To complete the picture, Mr Pedgley has also examined for me
Allen’s Gallinule in the Palearctic
4i 1
the meteorological conditions preceding the three other records from
temperate Europe. The following is a resume:
30th December 1923, Denmark South-westerly airstreams covered north-west
Europe during 25th-3oth December, with a sequence of frontal disturbances. On
27th and 28th strong south-west winds were blowing between the Azores and north-
west Europe, and in the latter region winds were strong to gale force on 29th and
30th, with a depression slow-moving between Scotland and Norway.
Beginning of February 1936, Bavaria During 24th-26th January there was a depres-
sion over western Europe, giving good southerly winds from north-west Africa.
Winds fell light and variable by the 30th, with south-westerlies from the Atlantic
picking up next day. During the first week of February winds over Bavaria were at
first westerly, veering to northerly by the 3rd.
29th December 1951, Brittany During 1 ith-23rd December there was an anticyclone
over north-west Europe, with generally light south-easterly winds between it and a
depression over north-west Africa. These south-easterlies were strongest on 22nd
and 23rd, and it seems likely that the bird arrived then. From 24th to 29th Decem-
ber a disturbed westerly type of weather covered north-west Europe, and the bird
was shot *. . . apr&s une violcntc tempete, par fort vent du nord-oucst’ (Berlioz
I952)-
Thus in each case the bird was obtained during disturbed weather,
prior to which there had been a spell of a week or more of anti-
cyclonic conditions, with favourable southerly winds blowing from
north-west Africa.
In conclusion, it may be noted that, while there are many vagrant
species on the British and Irish list, Allen’s Gallinule is particularly
interesting for being the only one of them to have originated from
the African tropics. In the words of Professor Dr K. H. Voous (Brit.
Birds, 67: 1 72), Allen’s Gallinule is probably the only truly Ethiopian
Region species which regularly straggles (if one may use this expres-
sion) to Europe.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is a pleasure to thank David Pedgley for his invaluable assistance on meteoro-
logical aspects. Other helpful comment and advice was given me by Dr D. A.
Bannerman, M. D. England, K. Williamson, and Dr Jos£ Maria Alvares Cabral
(Ponta Delgada Museum, Azores) ; while I am also grateful to the Sub-Department
of Ornithology, Tring Museum, for access to its library and specimens, and to the
BOU Records Committee for its co-operation.
SUMMARY
The record of a juvenile Allen’s Gallinule Porphyrula alleni from the Suffolk coast on
1st January 1902 has been reconsidered, and the species admitted to the British and
Irish list. The grounds for the reassessment are detailed. As this in part involves
comparison with other Palearctic occurrences, details of the latter (scattered in the
literature) are brought together for general discussion in the context of the
species’ annual cycle in the African tropics.
412
Allen's Gallinule in the Palearctic
REFERENCES
Arrigoni degli Oddi, E. 1929. Ornitologia Ilaliana. Milan.
Bannerman, D. A. 1963. The Birds of the British Isles. Edinburgh and London,
vol 12.
and Bannerman, W. M. 1966. Birds of the Atlantic Islands. Edinburgh and Lon-
don. vol 3 : A History of the Birds of the Azores.
Benson, C. W. i960. ‘The birds of the Comoro Islands: results of the British
Ornithologists’ Union Centenary Expedition 1958’. Ibis, 103b: 5-106.
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fordshire HP23 5NR
Adaptations in the reproductive biology
of the Great Crested Grebe*
K. E. L. Simmons
Photographs by W. N. Charles
Plates 56-62
I. INTRODUCTION
The Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus shows many striking and
puzzling features in its reproductive biology, these being the subject
of the present paper which is primarily concerned with adaptive
aspects.
My own studies on this species, which involved over 1,350 visits
to various waters and some 3,000 hours in the field, were made in
1948-62 and 1966-70, mostly at gravel-pits in the Kennet Valley
area of Reading, Berkshire, and at Chew Valley and Blagdon Lakes,
Somerset, respectively. In all, well over 100 broods were kept under
general observation, 39 intermittently more or less throughout the
period the chicks remained with their parents. Up to 1957, most
work was done at Burghfield Gravel-pit, especially on the pairs
occupying the mainly enclosed 0.8-ha (2-acre) section in the north-
west corner (the ‘Pool’). In 1957, however, special watches were
maintained on three broods (a, b and d) at Old Theale Gravel-pit.
Similar watches were also undertaken latei on four families at Chew:
those occupying the separate 8-ha (20-acre) Herriotts Pool in the
three seasons 1967-69 and that living in the 3-ha (8-acre) inner part
of Herons Green Bay (the ‘Arm’) in 1968. Full details of this work,
with complete case-histories of the study families, were given in
Simmons (1970c).
•Dedicated to Niko Tinbergen in the year of his retirement from the Chair of
Animal Behaviour, University of Oxford
414 Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
Ecological determinants of breeding co-adaptations
Of the many interrelated factors that influence the evolution
of a species’ dispersion pattern, social system and breeding be-
haviour, two are of particular importance: food supply and pre-
dation. Much recent work on bird biology has been orientated
to exploring breeding adaptations as affected by these parameters:
see, especially, Crook (1965) and Lack (1968). My own work
on the Brown Booby Sula leucogaster (Simmons 1967a, b, 1970b)
demonstrated how food supply strongly influences the species’
whole life-history at Ascension Island, where it is faced with a
prevailing situation of food unpredictability. This imposes great
difficulties for successful breeding and, consequently, the booby
seems to have developed a system of co-adaptations for raising young
in such conditions. Thus, certain ‘anticipatory’ adaptations ensure
that pairs are ready to breed should conditions become favourable;
‘initiating’ adaptations ensure that they start breeding as soon as
possible when conditions are favourable; and ‘sustaining’ adaptations
ensure the continuation of breeding as far as possible, even if feeding
conditions later deteriorate. In the case of the booby, natural pre-
dation was not one of the selection pressures involved. In many
other seabirds, however, predation is important in forming breeding
adaptations, as was exemplified by the classic study of the Kitti-
wake Rissa tridactyla by Cullen (1957) and by the later work of
Tinbergen and his colleagues on the Black-headed Gull Larus ridi-
bundus (Tinbergen et al. 1962, Kruuk 1964, Patterson 1965, Tin-
bergen 1967).
During the second phase of my study on the Great Crested
Grebe, it became evident that the ‘etho-ecological’ approach
that had been of such value in understanding the behavioural
ecology of the Brown Booby could be of equal importance in
interpreting many of the peculiar attributes of the grebe. As
I have pointed out elsewhere (Simmons 1968a), while it is possible
to indicate likely functions of a number of individual adaptations,
there is even more profit in taking the wider view and studying
the interrelations between them. Apart from a preliminary
summary of my own (Simmons 1970b), no general survey of
the adaptive significance of the various features of the Great
Crested Grebe’s reproductive biology has previously been attempted.
As I hope to show, the selection pressures of both predation and
food shortage are very likely involved in determining the breeding
co-adaptations of this species.
2. THE GREBE AS AN OPPORTUNISTIC NESTER
Breeding season
The breeding season of the Great Crested Grebe, which may be
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe 415
defined for our purposes as the period from the laying of the earliest
clutches until the last young become independent, is extremely
protracted, in England normally lasting seven to eight months and
sometimes covering almost the full year. At the extreme, laying
continues for eight months, from February to September, and
even normal laying extends over six months, from March to
August. The first chicks hatch in March, though more usually from
April onwards; the last hatch in August or even September and
early October, while some young remain semi-dependent until
November, December, or even January (one case at Chew). The
exact time of breeding often shows considerable variation, not
only from year to year and from water to water, but even among
different pairs living on the same lake.
Siting and dispersion of nests (plates 5g-6oa)
The fluctuation in the laying dates is, to a large extent, caused by
variations in the availability of cover, and breeding may be ‘delayed’
until emergent vegetation is sufficiently grown to shelter the nest
(Harrisson and Hollorn 1932, Witherby el at. 1940). Reduction
of predation on the vulnerable eggs and tiny young in the nest would
seem to be the major factor here: the nest needs to be sited as safely
as possible, especially from the attention of predatory mammals
operating along the margins of the lake and from birds such as
crows (Corvidae) and gulls (Laridae). This requirement to protect
the nest seems to be the chief determinant of breeding dispersion on
any one water.
Compared with many other waterbirds, the Great Crested Grebe
is much more limited in its choice of nesting place, largely because
of its physical specialisations as a highly efficient diver. Sites have,
therefore, to be accessible from the water, either at the water’s edge
or among flooded vegetation (as long as the nest can be anchored) ;
even then, the grebe can make only the lowest of leaps to get out of
the water. Should sites dry out due to falling water-level, they are
abandoned if they become accessible to land predators or if the
nest is stranded too far from the water or with too steep an approach.
The main danger from land comes from mammals such as the Red
Fox Vulpes vulpes and, of course, Man. The latter, especially, besides
directly robbing nests, often flushes the sitting grebe and thus
increases the likelihood of losing the unattended eggs or ‘hatchlings’
(recently emerged young) to predatory birds (though this is offset
to some extent by the deliberate covering of eggs, and even young,
with nest material).
Great Crested Grebe sites are either ‘concealing’ (that is, hidden
by screening vegetation, at least at floor level and from the land-
ward side) or ‘protective’ (inaccessible from the mainland bank),
4 1 6 Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
some being both. At the Kennet Valley gravel-pits, the majority
of nests were situated in flooded willows Salix and on islets where
they were clearly visible but inaccessible from land. At Chew,
many were sited in a large, flooded reed-bed where they were both
hidden and inaccessible; others were located inaccessibly in flooded
Salix, while those that were accessible were mostly hidden in small
clumps of fringing vegetation. At Blagdon, most nests were hidden
in fringing vegetation but some were exposed and wholly beyond
reach in flooded Salix. Thus it appears that the dispersion and
siting of nests are intimately connected. Where the aquatic vegeta-
tion is largely fringing and not very wide, or divided into small,
discrete units, most nests are well concealed within large territories
and widely dispersed, as, for example, at Blenheim, Oxfordshire
(McCartan and Simmons 1956), and over much of Blagdon; such
nests are, of course, the most vulnerable to predation. On the other
hand, some pairs may nest much closer together, even forming loose
colonies such as were found at Burghfield and Blagdon (in flooded
Salix ) and at Chew (in reeds). Although such an arrangement seems
sometimes correlated with a shortage of sites at a particular water,
for example on Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland, when the water-
level dropped (Mylne 1963), in general it would seem to be favoured
because of the increased safety from predators it imparts. At
Burghfield, more nests were successful in the loose colony in the
Pool than elsewhere, while at Blenheim the two or three pairs
nesting on the Island in Queen Pool in 1954-55 were more successful
than the six nesting well apart from one another off the shore of
the main lake (McCartan and Simmons 1956). At Chew, most
young originated from the loose colony in the reed-bed.
Other factors determining the start of nesting
Thus, the availability of cover for safe nesting appears to be of prime
importance in determining the grebe’s timetable; but the start
of egg-laying is also influenced by other local factors such as water-
level and weather. At the Kennet Valley gravel-pits, for example,
early nesting (usually in March) was possible because of the
presence of flooded willows safely away from the main banks.
Here, presumably, the grebes started to nest as soon as the worst
of the winter was over and days were lengthening, with occas-
ional laying in February when the weather was particularly mild
(as in 1957). At Chew, however, lack of suitable cover seemed
to be the most obvious cause of breeding delay, the birds having
to wait until the seasonal vegetation grew up. This was especially
true of those breeding in the dense reed-bed, most of the broods
originating from here not appearing out on the lake until July or
August, though the adults would first frequent the old reeds many
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe 4 1 7
months earlier. The availability of cover at Chew, particularly in
the reed-bed, was also much affected by the water-level. Here the
balance was very delicate: often the water was too deep in spring,
and too shallow later in the summer, when sometimes the cover
dried out completely. Thus, in 1968 the pair in the Arm was pre-
vented from nesting at the usual time by a drop in level after the
cover had grown up, but breeding was possible later when excep-
tionally heavy rain flooded it out again. In 1969, breeding was
prevented altogether by low water in the Arm and many other sites
at Chew. In the national census year of 1965, no young at all were
known to be reared at Chew due to low water; the same situation
also occurred in 1973 (R. J. Prytherch, verbally).
The availability of food must be another important proximate
factor in determining the onset of laying; see, for example, Perrins
(1970) for a general review. There has to be sufficient food above
normal requirements for (1) the female grebe to form her eggs, a
clutch of four being the equivalent of 16-20% of her body
weight; and (2) both male and female to maintain their co-operative
incubating routine, when they must readily be able to find enough
food for their own needs in the reduced time available for hunting
(approximately half of normal).
Freshwater lakes as unstable habitats
My observations at the Rennet Valley gravel-pits and at Chew
suggest that there is considerable variation in the hunting success
of grebes frequenting different waters, as well as at different times
on the same water. Much depends on the availability and, especially,
the size of the prey fish. At the gravel-pits, which were artificially
stocked with suitable coarse fish, including Roach Rutilus rutilus
and Perch Perea Jluviatilis (both favoured foods of the Great Crested
Grebe'), the birds fed chiefly on ‘big’ fish 7.5-15 cm (3-6 inches) long
and spent relatively little of their time hunting. In such circum-
stances, given suitable nest-sites, it is easy to understand why they
bred early there. At Chew, which was stocked with trout Salmo
spp and not coarse fish, the opposite situation held. Feeding con-
ditions were much more variable: while sometimes catching ‘big’
fish (mainly Roach), the grebes there had to rely much more on
fish less than 7.5 cm long and, correspondingly, spent much more
time on average in fishing. Breeding at Chew was probably delayed
not only by lack of suitable cover, but also until the days were long
enough to give more time for feeding. Further, there is good evidence
that the supply of Roach fluctuated greatly at Chew. The history
of this fish there up to 1969 was given by Wilson (1971). In the early
years after the completion of the reservoir, from 1956 onwards,
coarse fish were eliminated from the inflow waters, but by 1964
41 8 Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
Roach had recolonised the lake in such large numbers that a policy
of netting was instituted. The haul catch of large Roach was nearly
21,000 in 1964, rose to 60,000 in 1966, but then declined drastically
to ‘very few’ in 1969. The fall over the years 1965-68 was confirmed
by independent hauls made by the Zoology Department, University
of Bristol, and was attributed to heavy infestation by plerocercoids
of the tapeworm Ligula intestinalis . Since 1969, the Roach population
at Chew has fluctuated: 1971 was a good year, 1972 a poor one,
while Perch reappeared in the lake in the latter year (K. T. Standring
in litt.).
Other factors that influence feeding efficiency include the
depth and clarity of the water and these, too, like the food supply
itself, vary from time to time and from water to water. The clarity
of the water, for instance, depends on local factors such as the
concentration of plankton, agricultural practice, and the nature
of the local soil. At Chew, after heavy rain, the water on Herriotts
Pool especially becomes impregnated with a suspension of the local
marl and discoloured red. In addition, individual waters vary in
their physical features, such as the conformation of the banks, the
presence and distribution of islands, and the availability and type
of nesting cover. Moreover, the ecosystem of a lake is constantly
changing (see, for instance, Macan and Worthington 1951).
All in all, therefore, it may reasonably be argued that the fresh-
water lake habitat of the Great Crested Grebe is essentially an un-
stable one. This applies not only to Britain and western Europe but
throughout most of the species’ large, discontinuous range, both now
and in the past when its breeding adaptations were being evolved.
The successful rearing of young
The prolonged breeding season of the Great Crested Grebe is not
linked with the rearing of multiple broods as it is, for instance, in
the Rock Dove Columba livia (Lees 1946). I previously thought
(Simmons 1955) that it indicated that food for the young grebes
was abundant over a long span so that the precise time of laying,
determined by the suitability of cover for the nest, was unimportant.
This interpretation was in line with the argument of Baker (1938),
Lack (e. g. 1950), Thomson (1950) and others that ‘the ultimate
determination of a reproductive cycle depends on the survival of
progeny to a reproducible age and natural selection will have
favoured the gene-complexes of those individuals producing their
young at the most propitious season’ (Lofts and Murton 1968).
I now believe, however, that the Great Crested Grebe is capable
of breeding for so much of the year because it has been forced by
ecological factors to become, in one sense, an opportunistic nester:
because of the need to site the nest safely, it has to breed when it
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe 4 1 9
can within a wide span of months and not necessarily at a favourable
time for the rearing of young, unlike the majority of species breeding
in temperate latitudes with well-defined climatic seasons. Such a
system may result in pairs attempting to raise young even when the
food situation is poor, as happens in certain tropical seabirds such
as the Brown Booby.
To cope with this situation, the Great Crested Grebe appears to
have developed a number of interrelated adaptations that enable
it to breed successfully in its unstable environment. These are listed
and discussed in sections 4-7. First, however, a summary of the
breeding cycle is given in section 3 following, based mainly on my
own work; see Simmons (1955 and, especially, 1970c) for full
details.
3. AN OUTLINE OF THE BREEDING CYCLE
The breeding cycle of the Great Crested Grebe may be divided into
two main parts: the ‘pre-egg’ (or sexual) stage, and the ‘parent-
chick’ (or parental) stage. The first consists of four temporal
phases: (a) initial courtship and pairing; (b) establishment of
territory, site-selection, and later courtship; (c) initial platform-
behaviour; and (d) functional mating and nest-building. The
parent-chick stage follow's in five temporal phases: (e) egg-laying
and incubation; (f) hatching period and abandonment of the nest;
(g) carrying and guarding the young; (h) brood-division; and (j)
semi-dependence of the young and their departure. I also term
phases b and c the ‘engagement period’, phases f-j the ‘dependence
period of the young’, and phase j the ‘later phase’.
Initial pairing (plates 56, 57 inset)
In Britain and Ireland, Great Crested Grebes typically associate in
dispersed, territorial pairs during the breeding season but tend
to be asocial and free-ranging afterwards, hunting singly over a
much wider area of water and aggregating only loosely (if at all)
with other individuals when loafing. On some wintering lakes,
however, notably at Chew, temporary feeding congregations of 100
or more (often flightless) birds occasionally form in late summer,
while loafing parties can reach large size (100-350 out of a total
population of 500-600), especially in autumn and early winter.
Thus, though a minority overwinter in pairs, the pair-bond is
usually of seasonal duration and there is little sign of heterosexual
association in winter parties of loafing grebes, either at Chew (Sim-
mons 1968c) or elsewhere. The birds remaining in pairs are usually
those with large breeding territories which they continue to occupy
during the winter, weather permitting, or with which they at least
420
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
maintain loose contact at that season. Some lone individuals,
probably mainly males, also remain in territory during winter, or
at least revisit it from time to time or settle in early. A few grebes
at Chew maintained small, individual feeding territories in mid-
winter but these were abandoned before spring.
Many Great Crested Grebes start to develop their ornamental
display plumes during winter, from December onwards, most
being in full nuptial dress (plate 6ob) before spring, at the latest by
February or March. Concurrently, there is a movement back to the
breeding waters, weather permitting, by those that have wintered
elsewhere on larger lakes or the sea. At Chew, winter numbers
in 1966-70 built up to a peak in October and November but declined
noticeably later, especially from January onwards. At the same
time as the development of display plumage, the incidence of
intense heterosexual courtship and of antagonistic encounters
increases, though some individuals start displaying while still in
winter plumage. At first, such behaviour occurs mostly in ‘open’
water away from likely nesting places — indeed, sometimes starting-
on the sea or wintering lake — and is concerned largely with initial
pair-formation (the first stage of pair-bonding). Contact between
separated individuals, especially those unpaired, is greatly facilitated
by vocal ‘advertising’ (Simmons 1954), while couples engage in
the complex courtship ceremonies for which the species is renowned,
the three distinctive rituals mostly involved at this stage being
the ‘discovery ceremony’, the ‘head-shaking ceremony’ and the
‘retreat ceremony’ (see Simmons 1970a, in press).
Engagement period (plates 57a, 57b, 58)
Following initial pairing, the grebe couple often seeks out sites
together and establishes a territory where courtship continues for a
variable period, being especially intense and prolonged if close
neighbours or intruders are present. A fourth ritual, the particularly
complex ‘weed ceremony’ (see Simmons 1968b, in press), now be-
comes increasingly common ; this ritual is characteristically associated
with site-selection and early ‘platform-behaviour’, and it indi-
cates that the pair is firmly formed. At this stage, the platform-
behaviour may consist simply of ‘inviting-on-the-water’ at potential
sites, even before any vegetation has emerged; later, the building
of one or more rudimentary mating platforms upon which the sexes
in turn perform their soliciting displays is more typical (Simmons
1955, in press). Subsequently copulatory behaviour is added, with
the female at times mounting the male, as well as vice versa. As such
copulations often occur long before egg-laying, they obviously do
not lead to insemination at this time.
By the last phase (d) of the pre-egg stage, courtship has declined
421
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
considerably or stopped, more or less; soliciting leads to full,
functional copulations, and the true nest is built. This may be at
one of the sites used for early platform-behaviour but, as these are
often too exposed or otherwise unsafe for nesting, a new site may be
chosen.
Timetable
The duration of the events in the pre-egg stage varies considerably
and phase d may be separated from phases a-c by a few or many
weeks. At the Kennet Valley gravel-pits, providing there was no
prolonged spell of cold weather, I often found some pairs already
formed, established in territory, and carrying out early platform-
behaviour in late December and January. In most years, however,
functional copulation and egg-laying did not follow until March,
after a delay of at least eight weeks, often longer. Thus, pair ‘a’ at
Old Theale was carrying out weed ceremonies on 27th December
1958 and both sexes were soliciting in turn at a platform; but laying
did not occur until about 1 7th March, over twelve weeks after
the start of pairing. Bad weather not infrequently drove the gravel-
pit birds away, but often this clearly was not the factor in delaying
breeding. However, events were sometimes less prolonged. In 1957
at Old Theale, pair ‘e’ had already started to lay by about nth
February; on the other hand, some pairs at Burghfield did not
settle on territories in the crowded Pool until March or April or
even later but then soon starting nesting, laying within two or three
weeks. At Chew, events were usually protracted. Thus, the study
pair on Herriotts Pool was re-formed and present by mid-January
( 1 967), the first half of February (1968), and the last week of Jan-
uary (1969), but did not lay until 23rd May, 3rd May, and 29th
April respectively — up to 18 weeks later. In the Arm in 1968, a pair
that had settled in by the first half of February was replaced by a
second pair on 20th March, but laying did not take place until
about 22nd July, 18 weeks later or 23 weeks after the first pair
took up territory. In 1969, a pair was established in the Arm through-
out the spring and summer but never bred at all.
Non-breeders
Thus, the first stage of the breeding cycle, especially the engagement
period, can be very extended, the delays in nesting being due to a
variety of factors as discussed earlier. This raises the question of
non-breeders. It is often stressed in the literature that such birds
are present in many local populations of Great Crested Grebes,
though the term ‘non-breeding’ has been used in a variety of
senses and no specimens for physiological study seem to have been
422
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
collected. One has to distinguish ‘late breeders’ (those that have been
considerably delayed in nesting by unfavourable environmental con-
ditions), ‘would-be breeders’ (those that have been totally prevented
from breeding by the same factors) and ‘failed breeders’, from true
‘non-breeders’ (those that do not attempt to breed for physiological
reasons) . T ucker ( 1 934) , in an enquiry on the Great Crested Grebe in
Berkshire, Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire during 1931-32,
maintained that all birds would eventally attempt to breed on
any one water, and this was my experience at the Kennet Valley
gravel-pits during 1948-62. It would seem that many so-called non-
breeders are in fact birds that have either failed in their nesting
attempts or been prevented from breeding owing to lack of sites and
other factors. Infertility due to organic pesticides was suggested as a
factor producing true non-breeding in the grebe, but a recent survey
(Prestt and Jefferies 1969) found the species surprisingly unaffected.
It remains possible that reported non-breeders on some waters are
in fact young adults incapable of breeding, so that there is delayed
maturity in the Great Crested Grebe as, for example, in many
seabirds. However, young grebes assume normal display plumage,
pair and seem capable of breeding in their first year, at least in
those seasons when the population has been depressed following
severe winters (see Hollom 1951, Simmons 1955). Of course, young
grebes are much more likely to be prevented from breeding than
older, experienced birds and may, therefore, be in the majority
among unemployed adults at any one water or may be largely the
ones pushed out into marginal habitats for breeding (such as
reservoirs lacking suitable vegetation). Kop (1971) has discussed
the possibility that some non-breeders are homosexual pairs of
males, this situation arising from a surplus of that sex among young
grebes.
Clutch-size
The Great Crested Grebe usually lays three or four eggs in Britain,
but clutches of two or five are not infrequent, while six has been
reliably reported (Harrisson and Hollom 1932, Tucker 1934, Prestt
and Jefferies 1969, Simmons 1970c). In continental Europe, two to
six eggs seem normal, three to five being most common (Melde 1973).
Weighing approximately 38 gm, some 4-5% of the female’s body
weight, each egg is small compared with the size of the bird.
There was no indication in my own records from Berkshire of
any significant seasonal trends in clutch-size. This held also for 207
Swiss clutches, which varied from a mean of 4.1 eggs in May to
4.5 in July (Bauer and Glutz 1966); in contrast, 67 clutches from
East Germany declined from 5.5 in April to 4.2 in June (Melde
1 973) •
423
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
Incubation and hatching (plates 59b, 61 a)
Female Great Crested Grebes lay their eggs at approximately 48-
hour intervals and incubation starts early in the laying period.
(For details of egg-laying behaviour, see page 438 and plate 63.)
‘Premature’ sitting occurs spasmodically a few days before laying,
then true incubation on the day the first egg is laid or on the day
after at the latest (that is, on the interval day between the laying of
the first and second eggs). Thus, the development of the embryos
is progressive, not synchronous, and this system affects their relative
hatching intervals. Both sexes incubate in turn, taking equal shares.
In a total of 556 hours of observations at eight nests, males sat for
289 hours, females for 267; 181 spells lasted from ten to 492 minutes,
averaging 108 minutes and increasing in mean duration as incuba-
tion progressed from, for example, 75 minutes in the second week
to 141 in the fourth. Each egg takes 27-29 days to hatch, usually 28,
and the brood emerges asynchronously, as would be expected, so
that there is an extended hatching period (up to five days for a
clutch of three and up to seven days for a clutch of four). The young
usually remain with the sitting bird throughout the hatching period
and the nest is then abandoned when the last chick has dried out;
sometimes, however, viable eggs are left behind (Schiermann 1927,
Hanzak 1952). Neither the adults nor the young normally return
to the nest, or any other platform, afterwards. The family may or
may not remain in the original territory after hatching, much
depending on the type of territory maintained. Pairs with tiny
territories, such as those in the loose colonies at Burghficld, Chew
and Blagdon, usually abandon them and either set up brood
territories elsewhere or wander over the free area of the lake. Those
with large territories, however, often rear their young within them.
Carrying and guarding (plate 61b)
During the hatching period, the chicks spend their time on the
back of the sitting adult. When the nest is abandoned, the parents
continue to take turns in carrying the young out on the water
during the second week, but do so less and less during the third.
Thus, the carrying period lasts up to three weeks, not ten days as
stated by Simmons (1955). The adults usually continue to guard
the young to a greater or lesser extent during the third and fourth
weeks, sometimes longer in the case of small broods, tending to take
turns in remaining with the chicks. At times, however, both parents
of larger broods (especially) may hunt simultaneously, leaving the
chicks unattended even in the later part of the earn ing period.
During these early weeks away from the nest, a simple hierarchy
is established within the brood and larger chicks tend to dominate
their smaller siblings which respond to the former’s hostility with
424
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
appeasing and submissive behaviour. Disputes among the young
occur especially when they find themselves in the water near the
parent or when two or more go to get food from the same adult.
Brood-division (plate 62)
Both parent Great Crested Grebes share equally in carrying,
guarding and feeding the whole brood when the young are small,
but later a different system operates in families of two or more.
That the adults later ‘divide’ up the young between them was
first clearly indicated by Harrisson and Hollom (1932) and sub-
sequently established as a regular feature of the species’ breeding-
behaviour by my own work. Such brood-division results in the
formation of two family sub-groups with each parent usually feeding
only its ‘own’ young and showing hostility to the ‘other’ young if
they approach closely. The two sub-groups typically associate only
loosely, mainly when loafing, and may sometimes separate more or
less entirely. The adult pair-bond grows progressively weaker after
the brood has been divided, unless there is an attempt at a second
brood, and male and female may even be hostile to one another if
and when they meet.
Observations at Old Theale in 1957 and later at Chew revealed
a further aspect of the complex organisation of the grebe family.
Within each sub-group, if of more than one young, one chick
associates more closely than the other with the adult; this ‘in-chick’
is fed regularly and tolerated near the parent, whereas the ‘out-
chick’ receives food only when the in-chick is satiated or elsewhere,
and is not allowed close to the parent. Thus, in many grebe families
there are three grades of young for each adult: (1) its own in-chick,
(2) its out-chick, and (3) the young of the mate.
The later phase
Analysis of my records for 39 broods kept under general observation
shows that the young stayed with their parents from eleven to at
least 16 weeks, some longer than others in the same brood. There
was no evidence of full independence before week 1 x and some young
were still being fed up to at least week 15, some families remaining
together as late as November or December.
Observations at Old Theale in 1957 and later at Chew gave
more precise information, as follows:
(1) the young usually began to catch fish efficiently for themselves in week 8 or 9;
(2) they became food-independent from week 10 onwards;
(3) they made their first flights in weeks 11 or 12, in eight cases when 71-79
days old;
(4) they stayed with their parents until at least week 1 1 ;
(5) there was wide variation in the age of departure even within the same family ;
425
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
(6) some young left in week 1 1 as soon as they could fly, while others remained
up to week 23 (in some cases until November or December and once until January),
so that they left 3-15 weeks after the start of self-feeding, an extremely variable
span;
(7) out-chicks tended to leave first (mean, twelve weeks), in-chicks later (mean,
1 7 weeks) ;
(8) parental feeding lasted on average 13 weeks, ending earlier (in weeks 10 or
1 1) for out-chicks but continuing up to week 15 (once until week 23) for in-chicks;
(9) the total duration of the parent-chick stage, from the first egg to the depar-
ture of the last young, ranged from 15 to 25 weeks (mean 20).
Those adults still engaged in rearing young in late summer
undertake their annual wing-moult during the last phase of the
cycle, becoming flightless for a period of 3-4 weeks, usually in
August and September (October in one late-nesting pair). Males
usually moult 2-3 weeks before females, somewhat before or con-
current with the departure of the first young of the brood but well
before the departure of the last. Females, however, tend to start
their moult only after the first young have gone, while many depart
to moult elsewhere, leaving the mate (and in some instances the
last young) behind. Although my general observations show that
some grebe pairs occasionally winter together after the departure
of all the young, weather permitting, in only one of the six main
study families did this happen. In another case, the male of the pair
remained and wintered alone; in a third it was the female that
stayed, accompanied by her in-chick. Most females departed in
September and October, most males in November and December;
in no case did mates depart together. Sometimes, however, the
departure of adults and particular young, usually their ‘own’ in
divided broods, was concurrent and there is some evidence of the
association between parent and in-chick continuing elsewhere.
Brood-size
Of 1 24 broods in the Reading area during 1 948-65 (including some at
gravel-pits and lakes not previously mentioned), 25% were of one
young, 47% of two, 22% of three, and 6% of four: mean, 2.1. Brood-
size varied between waters: of the two main study pits, Burghfield
averaged lower (1.7) than Old Theale (2.3), the latter having all
the fours and several threes; elsewhere in the Reading area,
Whiteknights Lake had the highest mean of all the local waters
(2.8), three young being the usual complement. In a much smaller
sample from Chew in 1966-69, broods of two were most common,
then ones and threes (both well behind) ; as in the Reading area,
broods of four were the least numerous and larger broods unknown.
These trends are similar to those found in other studes (e.g. Tucker
1934, Prestt and Jefferies 1969, Bacon 1972, Melde 1973). Although
in exceptional circumstances broods of five may apparently be
426 Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
successfully raised (Harrisson and Hollom 1932, Tucker 1934), it is
clear that broods of over four — and hence family sub-groups of
more than two young — are unusual.
Clutch-size consistently averages much higher than brood-size in
the Great Crested Grebe. Of the possible factors causing a reduction
in the number of young, egg infertility is evidently unimportant
(Harrisson and Hollom 1932), while egg loss through causes such
as drought and predation by crows usually affects whole clutches.
Predation of small chicks by Pike Esox lucius, however, is clearly a
major factor (Harrisson and Hollom 1932, Tucker 1934, Simmons
1955), the presence or absence of large Pike probably being one
likely explanation of variation in brood-size and breeding success
between waters. Competition between siblings for food has also
been found to cause chick mortality, at least in Surrey and perhaps
elsewhere (Harrisson and Hollom 1932). Of mortality factors occur-
ring during the hatching period, bad weather causes many deaths,
hatchling grebes being most susceptible to cold and damp. Another
major factor in brood reduction, however, may be the deliberate
desertion of unhatched but viable eggs, at least on some waters. No
cases came to light during my study but could easily have been
overlooked; though it is not known how widespread this peculiar
practice is in Britain, Hanzak (1952) found that it occurred on a few'
waters in Bohemia.
Productivity
In 1931, Great Crested Grebes in England and Wales (including
failed and non-breeding pairs) reared a mean of 1.3 young per pair
with, however, considerable variation between counties, ranging
from 2.6 in Leicestershire to 0.6 in Bedfordshire (Plarrisson and
Hollom 1932). In 1965 the national average was 1.5 (Prestt and
Jefferies 1969). The mean for Burghfield and Old Theale in eight
seasons was 1.2, compared with 1.8 for Berkshire and Oxfordshire
as a whole in earlier years (Tucker 1934) ; however, breeding success
was consistently higher at Old Theale (mean 2.0 young per pair)
than at Burghfield (0.9). In Derbyshire in 1972, total productivity
was 0.7 young per pair (Bacon 1972), much the same as in 1931.
Data from the Continent summarised by Melde (1973) gave an
average of 1.7 young per pair.
Great Crested Grebes will replace both lost clutches and broods
within 15-18 days, but data are scanty. Normally only one brood
is attempted, but true second broods involved, for example,
4.3% of all breeding records in 1931 ( Harrisson and Hollom 1932).
At Burghfield and Old Theale, only 4.6% of pairs successfully
reared double broods during 1948-57. Harrisson and Hollom had
stressed the large brood-sizes (averaging 2.3 and 2.7 for first and
I la i e 5(1. Courting pair of Great Crested Grebes Podiceps cristatus ‘head-
shaking’. Lough Neagh, Northern Ireland. May 1962 {photo: It'. .V. Charles). Birds
assume nuptial plumage and often start forming pairs during the winter, thus
being ready to nest whenever ecological conditions later permit (pages 413-437)
Plates 57 and 58. Above, Great Crested Grebes in territorial dispute; below,
courting pairs at climaxes of ‘discovery ceremony’ (inset) and ‘weed ceremony’;
Lough Neagh, May 1962. After a period of initial courtship, pairs often estab-
lish territories from midwinter onwards so as to be ready to breed later whenever
they can. Opposite, ‘platform-behaviour’: top and centre, ‘inviting’ and ‘rearing’
soliciting displays; below, copulation; Burghfield Gravel-pit, Berkshire, April
1956. Like courtship, soliciting (by both sexes) and copulation (at times
‘reversed’) often occur well before nesting, thus helping to strengthen the
pair-bond while the birds wait to nest ( photos : W. N. Charles) (pages 419-421)
Plate 59. Great Crested Grebes off reed-bed prior to nesting, Lough Neagh,
May 1962; below, adult about to settle on eggs at nest in reed-bed, same loca-
lity, June 1962 ( photos : W. N. Charles ). Breeding is often ‘delayed’ in this
species until emergent vegetation is sufficient to hide or protect the nest
Plate 6o. Group of close nests of Great Crested Grebes in reed-bed, Lough
Neagh, June 1962. Nest dispersion is largely dependent on the available cover;
most nests are widely spaced, but colonies are sometimes formed at particularly
favourable sites, such as reed-beds (pages 415-41(3). Below, adult in nuptial
plumage, Old Thcale Gravel-pit, Berkshire, April 1958 ( photos : M’. . V. Charles
Plate 6i. New-hatched Great Crested Grebe chick in nest; below, male giving
feather to young carried on female’s back; Old Theale Gravel-pit, Berkshire,
April 1958 ( photos : W. N. Charles). The brood hatches asynchronously and the
nest is then abandoned, the young being carried on the parent’s back for several
days after. As the time of breeding is determined by the availability of nest cover,
it may not always coincide with conditions favourable for rearing young
Plate 62. Above, family sub-group of Great Crested Grebes, Aldcrmaston Main
Gravel-pit, Berkshire, May 1957: below, adult feeding its ‘in-chick’. New Theale
Gravel-pit, also Berkshire, May 1960 (photos: II’. .V. Chnrlrs). When about half-
grown, broods of two or more young are ‘divided’ between the parents which each
then favour one particular chick above any of the others. These and related adapta-
tions help to ensure the survival of at least some young if food becomes scarce
Plate 63. Two stages in the egg-laying behaviour of the Great Crested Grebe
Podiceps cristatus ( photos : M. Wiechmann ): above, the egg being slowly ejected
(horizontally) from the cloaca; below, immediately after laying, the female
standing up on the edge of the nest and beating her half-open wings (page 438)
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe 427
second broods respectively) and high seasonal productivity of
double-brooded pairs in 1931; it was evident also that second
broods were attempted mainly on waters with low population den-
sities, usually with only one or two pairs. At the Berkshire gravel-
pits, however, breeding populations were much higher (averaging
ten pairs) and the mean sizes of both hist broods (1.6) and second
broods (1.4) were lower. On the other hand, records from two
ornamental lakes in the Reading area, Whiteknights and Bulmershe,
during 1949-63 were closer to the earlier ones in that there were
higher mean brood-sizes (2.2 and 2.3 respectively) and populations
of only one pair. At Chew in 1967-69, all of the many pairs watched
closely were single-brooded; in 1966, however, the pair in the Arm
successfully raised broods of one and four young. My own data
indicate that first-brood clutches appear early (March to the first
part of May) and the two broods overlap, the second clutch usually
being started when the first-brood young are 6-7 weeks old (five
out of seven records) or 9-10 (the other two).
4. ANTICIPATORY ADAPTATIONS FOR BREEDING
The need for Great Crested Grebes to be ready to nest whenever
conditions become favourable seems to have resulted, as in the
Brown Booby, in a number of anticipatory adaptations, namely
(1) early pairing, (2) early establishment of territory, and (3) long
sexual cycle.
Early pairing and establishment of territory
Birds which remain permanently paired would, ideally, be in the
best position to be opportunistic nesters. This was found to be
the case with the Brown Booby at Ascension and, indeed, some
Great Crested Grebes in Britain do remain paired between breeding
seasons. These, however, are in a minority, for many pairs split
up at the end of their breeding cycle when family sub-groups
separate and females depart on moult migration. There is also a
tendency for hostile incompatibility to develop between mates
when rearing young, the bond being transferred to the young
(especially the in-chick), while the pair evidently also tends to
become separated after departing on weather-movement flight,
especially in higher latitudes and wherever there are seasonally
unfavourable periods which make breeding waters temporarily
uninhabitable, such as through ice or drought.
Although factors combine to make permanent pairing impractic-
able in many parts of the range, Great Crested Grebes in Britain do
start to pair very early, as we have seen. Indeed, so strong is this
tendency that some of my study birds began pairing again with
their former mates at the end of the breeding cycle, in the autumn
428 Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
following the period of estrangement while rearing young. While
early pairing may be advantageous because there is a measure
of competition for mates — at least among young males, which Kop
(1971) found to be somewhat more numerous than young females — I
believe such a factor to be at most secondary. It is much more
likely that early pairing is primarily anticipatory so that pairs
are ready to breed as soon as it is ecologically favourable to do
so. Thus, many pairs are formed several weeks or even months
before they have the opportunity to nest, though they are ready
virtually from the start should conditions permit.
Soon after initial pairing, many Great Crested Grebe couples
establish themselves in a territory, often in traditional areas long
before there is even a sign of cover for the nest. Indeed, a minority
are more or less permanently resident between seasons though, as
in the case of permanent pairing, this is usually impossible for some
of the same reasons. Such early site attachment would seem to be
anticipatory, in the same way as early pairing, but another factor
may also be involved — a general shortage of premium sites. So
demanding are the grebe’s nesting requirements that such sites must
always be limited on any one water: hence such phenomena as
colonial nesting, when a number of pairs make use of a particularly
favourable feature of the local habitat (such as a reed-bed: see plate
60a). Given this shortage, there must be strong competition for good
sites and this would also favour early and prolonged occupation of
the future breeding areas.
Over the Great Crested Grebe’s whole range, the extent to which
pair-bonds and territorial occupation are maintained over the year
must be subject to adaptive variation through local ecological
pressures. Mate and site permanency could occur regularly where
environmental conditions are more stable than in Britain and much
of central and northern Eurasia, for instance in tropical Africa
where the species mainly frequents temperate montane lakes.
Permanency may also be correlated with non-seasonal, opportunistic
breeding and the retention of the nuptial plumes throughout the
year, as in the race infuscatus of the Ethiopian region.
Long sexual cycle
Judging from the wide spread in laying, the differences in egg dates
from water to water in the same season, the quick replacement of
lost clutches and broods, and the occasional production of over-
lapping broods, the Great Crested Grebe must remain in active
breeding condition for many months of the year. Again, I interpret
this as an anticipatory adaptation for opportunistic nesting. Its
ability to breed early in the year would indicate that the species
either has no photosensitivity or a very low threshold of photo-
429
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
sensitivity and probably no refractory period in its annual physio-
logical cycle (see Lofts and Murton 1968). In either case, it is
evidently physiologically adapted to be able to breed over many
months of the year. The hormonal control mechanism involved
remains to be investigated but may resemble that suggested by
Farner (e.g. 1967) for opportunistic desert breeders. Here, the
hypothalamus is thought to exert an essentially tonic, gonadotrophin-
stimulating role that maintains the gonads in a functional stage
for as long as it is not inhibited by totally unfavourable environ-
mental conditions.
Significance of courtship and other heterosexual rituals
Early pairing and early site attachment impose upon male and
female the need to remain together perhaps for a prolonged period
before breeding. Meanwhile, they often have to face serious com-
petition from rivals for their territories and also, in part arising
from this, for their mates, at least until the pair-bond is firm (see
below). It is against such a background that the significance of the
species’ heterosexual rituals, especially the highly elaborate court-
ship, needs to be assessed. The courtship rituals in particular, first
studied by Huxley (1914) and now under re-examination by myself
and other workers, pose many problems of interpretation. Leaving
aside the intriguing question of why there are no less than four
distinctive rituals, it is instructive to examine general aspects.
As courtship virtually ceases once incubation begins (Simmons
1955), its major functional roles would seem to relate primarily
to events in the pre-egg phases of the cycle. These would seem to
be both bond-forming and bond-maintaining. Certainly, in spite
of assertions in the early literature to the contrary, courtship does
accompany pair-formation, the process being a gradual one
extending over many days or weeks. During this time the pair-bond
is potentially terminable, as indicated, for example, by some
individuals’ tendency to ‘flirt’ (Huxley 1914) with birds other than
the mate. Intense and frequent courtship occurs during the engage-
ment period, especially when pairs establish territory, investigate
potential nest-sites and get involved in antagonistic encounters with
intruders and neighbours. Thus the pair-bond is kept intact until
nesting can finally get under way. In the advertising behaviour
which serves to re-establish contact when members of the pair are
well separated, the characteristic ‘croaking’ calls vary considerably
between individuals, facilitating personal recognition of the mate
and thus further strengthening the pair-bond. Courtship probably
also has a mutually stimulating, physiological effect; for instance,
the displays could contribute to environmental factors causing the
tonic effect of the hypothalamus on the gonads discussed earlier, as
430
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
well as bringing the breeding rhythm of the two sexes into synchrony,
as suggested for bird display generally by many earlier writers (e.g.
Howard 1929, Marshall 1936).
As it occurs regularly early in the engagement period, when
obviously not proximately linked with egg production, the platform-
behaviour of the Great Crested Grebe is likely to have similar
bonding and physiological functions as the courtship. This inter-
pretation of initial platform-behaviour would explain certain
apparently anomalous features such as the use of very rough weed
structures, often at sites quite unsuitable for nesting, the resort
to ‘substitute sites’ (see Simmons 1955) and, above all, reversed
soliciting and mounting.
5. INITIATING ADAPTATIONS FOR BREEDING
It is uncertain whether there are well-developed adaptations in
this category in the Great Crested Grebe comparable, for example,
with those of a bird such as the Brown Booby in which the avail-
ability of sites usually offers no problem but which is subjected,
presumably, to much grosser fluctuations in food supply. This
latter situation places a premium on rapid responses to improved
conditions. The whole problem obviously requires much further
study in the grebe, but the rapidity with which the true nest can
be built (in a day or less), plus the relatively small size of each egg,
might be important in certain circumstances in which it is
advantageous to start breeding as soon as possible.
6. SUSTAINING ADAPTATIONS FOR BREEDING
As a result of the wide variability in the timing of nesting, both
from water to water and from season to season, a favourable food
supply for Great Crested Grebe chicks cannot be anticipated
and they are liable to hatch at a time of food shortage, or may
experience it at some time during the dependence period. Their
parents, therefore, may run into difficulties in finding enough
food to feed all the young adequately, a brood of four needing
in excess of the equivalent of 20,000 small fish during the main
rearing period (see Simmons 1970c), the adults’ own requirements
being an additional demand on local resources. To cope with
having to provide a large biomass of food in a potentially unstable
environment, the Great Crested Grebe seems to be able to ‘control’
the output of young at various points in the parent-chick stage to
conform with the feeding conditions operating at the time, thus
ensuring if possible the survival of at least some chicks. The sus-
taining adaptations involved include some or all of the following:
(1) variable clutch-size, (2) asynchronous hatching, (3) abandonment
of viable eggs, (4) age-hierarchy among the young, (5) brood-
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe 43 1
division, (6) the favouring of certain chicks, (7) the separation of
family sub-groups, (8) prolonged dependence of the young, (9)
replacement of lost clutches and broods, and (10) the rearing of
second broods.
Variable clutch-size
The largest normal clutch of the Great Crested Grebe may be three
times as great as the smallest, a difference that transcends the
variation in clutch-size found in most birds. Moreover, there is no
evidence of any consistent seasonal variations in mean clutch-size
characteristic of other birds with an extended breeding season
(see Lack 1947) : it can fluctuate irregularly, show a slight seasonal
increase, or even decrease sharply. In itself, this situation points
to the food locally available for the laying female as being the main
proximate factor in determining how many eggs shall form the
clutch at any particular time. It also indicates that the availability
of food fluctuates unpredictablv, which is in keeping with my
general hypothesis, and this alone may be a sufficient explanation
of variable clutch-size in the species. However, it also remains
probable that current clutch-size is correlated with the number of
young most likely to survive later if the food conditions operating at
laying continue at the time of hatching.
Asynchronous hatching and its effects
In most species with prccocial young, such as waterfowl (Analidae)
and waders (Gharadriiformes), effective incubation starts with
the last egg and the chicks hatch out more or less together. The
asynchronous hatching of the Great Crested Grebe, therefore,
is distinctly unusual and is similar to that found in may species
with altricial or semi-altricial young with long nestling periods,
such as various owls (Strigiformes) and diurnal raptors (Falconi-
formes) ; it is also found in many other fish-eating birds, including
herons (Ardeidae). Most of these, however, have fixed and restricted
laying seasons, unlike the grebe; in the Grey Heron Ardea cinerea,
for instance, eggs are laid in March-April and the young are in the
nest at the period of maximum availability of food (Owen i960).
It is generally accepted that species which have evolved asyn-
chronous hatching are likely to experience food shortage when
rearing young, the advantage for survival thus being placed on the
first-hatched and, therefore, larger young.
It cannot be doubted that, in the Great Crested Grebe, the
older young (especially the first and, to a somewhat lesser extent,
the second chicks) have an advantage during the hatching and
carrying periods and immediately afterwards. Not only are they
stronger but they are better able to get to the feeding adult first for
food and can take up positions of advantage on the water earlier than
432
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
their smaller siblings. Thus, they are more likely to obtain food
should it be in short supply, as was clearly the case at this stage
in at least two of my study broods (family ‘d’ at Old Theale in 1957
and the 1969 Herriotts Pool family at Chew') . The advantages of
size and strength bestowed on the first-hatched young by asyn-
chronous hatching are enhanced by the establishment of a hierarchy
within the brood; this simple dominance system persists while the
whole brood is together but is later replaced by more complex
relationships.
Another possible option that asynchronous hatching gives to
the grebe parents at times of food scarcity at hatching is to carry
away a reduced brood from the nest by abandoning viable eggs,
the mechanism for such an adaptation presumably operating
largely through the adults’ own feeding rates. The whole question
of the desertion of the nest before all the young have hatched requires
thorough investigation; if not always due solely to factors such as
disturbance, such apparently dysgenic behaviour only makes sense
if it has evolved as a sustaining adaptation for controlling the
size of the brood in critical conditions.
Brood-division and its effects
The splitting of the Great Crested Grebe brood into two units,
each in charge of a single adult, usually operates effectively when
the young are becoming fairly large (Simmons 1968a). Such
division, however, tends to be established earlier if the parents
are faced with difficulties in feeding the young, as in the case of
family ‘d’ at Old Theale in 1957 and the 1969 Herriotts Pool
family at Chew. Its main functions seems to be to reduce competition
for food within the brood and to increase parental feeding efficiency.
Although in theory there would seem to be no difference between
the joint feeding by the parents of, say, a brood of two and the same
two adults each feeding a single chick, in fact I found that in
some of my study families there was a dramatic rise in the overall
feeding rate and in the rate per chick after brood-division. The
full significance of brood-division can be more fully assessed when
it is considered with two closely linked phenomena: the favouring
of certain chicks (‘in-chick/out-chick situation’) and the separation
of family sub-groups.
In divided families, each parent gives most attention to one
chick in its sub-group; this receives preference at feeding over
any second chick. The in-chick is not necessarily the elder of the
two. Thus, the system of brood-division and in-chick favouritism
replaces the earlier one in which the advantage lay definitely with
the larger young for, as the chicks grow, the new system is required
to facilitate the survival of at least the in-chicks of the family in the
433
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
face of any serious food shortage when age differences between
siblings no longer count. At the extreme, the in-chick in each sub-
group would be expected to get all the food provided at the expense
of any out-chicks, the latter being expendable (as were the last eggs
in partly abandoned clutches) and reared only if the food situation
permitted. In none of the study families, nor in any of those watched
less intensively, did the extreme situation occur, but it was possibly
approached on Herriotts Pool at Chew in 1967 where the odd chick
in a brood of three received relatively little parental attention.
Further, the case-history of family ‘d’ at Old Theale was particularly
instructive and provided a natural experiment. There was evidence
of food shortage, especially when the young were small; then the
female became incapacitated and could not feed her young. The
male continued to feed mainly just his single chick and later the
female started feeding her in-chick again, but the female’s out-
chick was almost totally neglected and eventually died of starvation.
After brood-division, the family units may separate to a greater
or lesser extent. I see this as a mechanism for reducing food com-
petition within the family, the degree of disassociation probably
mediated by the current food situation, the sub-groups being more
likely toseparate if feeding conditions are poor. Something approach-
ing this occurred on Herriotts Pool in 1967 and it was noticeable
that the adults sought food mainly in different places, only the
females persistently searching the flooded littoral vegetation.
Prolonged dependence of the young
Parental feeding in the Great Crested Grebe usually continues at
least until the time of fledging at eleven weeks when the full-grown
chicks have been able to catch some food themselves for two or
three weeks; in the case of in-chicks especially, it may continue
for a few weeks longer, up to twelve in one case. Such a prolonged
period of semi-dependence is clearly adaptive in ensuring the
survival of the juvenile grebe in the face of food difficulty while it
perfects skilled hunting techniques. The situation in the Great
Crested Grebe recalls that in boobies and is likely to prove wide-
spread in fish-eating and predatory birds, having been recorded,
for example, in various terns and gulls (Ashmole and Tovar S 1968,
Holley 1970), owls and diurnal birds of prey (Southern et al. 1954,
Brown and Amadon 1968). In most or all of these birds, as with the
Brown Booby and Great Crested Grebe, the juveniles have elaborate
begging-cum-appeasing behaviour which continues, often at high
intensity, for as long as they associate with the parent.
Replacements and second broods
After total loss of eggs or young, it is of obvious adaptive advantage
for the grebe pair to breed again as soon as possible, provided that
434
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
ecological conditions are favourable for laying. Then, when con-
ditions are particularly good, the rearing of double broods permits
the production of additional young. From all available information,
it would seem that the main conditions facilitating normal attempts
at double broods are an early first nesting and a small breeding
population, preferably one pair. Low population density is in all
probability linked chiefly with the ability of a single pair to utilise
a large area for hunting — for example 5 ha (over 12 acres) at White-
knights and 8 ha (15 acres) at Bulmershe, two of the Reading waters
where double-brooding occurred — and with the absence of com-
petition from other pairs. Thus, the food supply itself emerges as
the true main factor, as first indicated by Harrisson and Hollom
(1932). At Burghfield, a good food supply coupled with early
nesting would seem to have favoured the occasional double broods,
in spite of a large population. Another factor in such marginal cases
would be the small size of the first brood, as also at Chew in 1966.
In view of the apparent selective advantage in double-brooding,
the feeding and other conditions favouring it must, presumably,
occur only infrequently. These must have been better than average
in 1965 when no less than 11% of the breeding pairs counted
nationally raised a second brood (Prest! and Jefferies 1969), a much
higher proportion than that recorded in 1931 or during my studies
at the Kennet Valley gravel-pits. As second-brood young are usually
still being cared for into the eaily part of the winter, their chances
of survival may be reduced and this may be a selective factor
operating against second broods. In any case, in Britain (which is at
the western edge of the species’ range), second broods just cannot
be attempted on many waters where the grebes are unable to nest
until June or later.
7. CONCLUSION
It remains yet to demonstrate fully that all these adaptations of
the Great Crested Grebe indeed operate in the manner suggested.
There was, in fact, no real evidence during the course of my studies
of obvious gross food shortage causing the death of young through
starvation, though there was clear indication that food difficulties
of sorts did arise. For instance, in the 1969 Herriotts Pool family
at Chew the trouble was a deficiency in fish of an economical size
for the feeding of the young, entailing a great expenditure of energy
by the parents who maintained the highest feeding rates recorded
coupled with a very low biomass rate (see Simmons 1970c). No
long-term work on the feeding ecology of the Great Crested Grebe
has vet been done and, indeed, the natural situation is hard to assess
because so many waters in Britain and Europe are artificially affected
by fish stocking, fish management, angling and other human
435
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
activities. The position was further confounded during my study by
the difficulty in examining a sufficient sample of nests and by the
loss of young from causes other than starvation, such as from
exposure and (at the gravel-pits) from predation by large Pike.
I am also aware of the dangers, in syntheses of this sort, of over-
simplification, circular argument, confusion of cause and effect,
and semantic errors. Perhaps not all the phenomena that I have
grouped together as ‘adaptations’ — that is, the results of selective
processes — are comparable. Nevertheless, the hypothesis offered
here remains highly plausible, stresses certain important consistencies
in the available data, and is subject to test in future etho-ecological
research and controlled field experimentation (involving, for
example, manipulation of the food supply and brood-size). In any
case, as with the brown booby, it certainly seems true that a better
understanding of the breeding biology (and social behaviour) of
the Great Crested Grebe is likely to follow careful consideration of
ecological factors.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The first phase of my study was undertaken privately; the second was financed by
a special research grant from the Nature Conservancy and later from the Natural
Environment Research Council while I was working at the Department of Psy-
chology, University of Bristol, through the good offices of the late Professor K. R. L.
Hall and Dr J. H. Crook. I am greatly indebted to the many people who have
helped me in my grebe work over the years; these were mostly fisted in Simmons
(1970c). In connection with the present paper, however, I would like to thank
those specifically mentioned in the text; VV. N. Charles for his photographs, some
of which were taken at Reading waters during my field work; my many other
friends in the Reading and Bristol Ornithological Clubs, particularly C. E. Douglas
and Bernard King; and Dr U. Weidmann, the late Professor S. G. M. Lee, and
Professor \V. Sluckin for facilities at the Department of Psychology, University of
Leicester, during the writing of this paper. Finally, I must mention that the annual
report of the Reading Ornithological Club and the monthly bulletin of the Bristol
Ornithological Club, Bird News, both provided valuable supplementary local
information on grebes.
SUMMARY
The Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus, a highly specialised, fish-eating water-
bird, has a variable and extended breeding season, usually nesting only when safe
sites are available. Unlike most birds of temperate regions, therefore, and because
it occupies a bascially unstable habitat, it cannot always time its egg-laying to
coincide with periods favourable for the rearing of young. Consideration of
various aspects of the breeding cycle, from initial pairing to the wing moult and
departure of the adults, suggests that many of the striking and puzzling features
of the grebe’s reproductive biology may be interpreted mainly as interrelated
adaptations for (1) opportunistic nesting, and (2) the successful raising of young in
conditions of food shortage.
REFERENCES
Ashmole, N. P., and Tovar S, H. T. 1968. ‘Prolonged parental care in Royal
Terns and other birds’. Auk, 85: 90-100.
436 Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
Bacon, P. J. 1972. Derbyshire Grebe Survey 1972. Privately circulated.
Baker, J. R. 1938. ‘The evolution of breeding seasons’. In Evolution, edited by
G. R. de Beer. London and New York, pp 161-177.
Bauer, K. M., and Glutz von Blotzheim, U. N. 1966. Handbuch der Vogel MitUl-
europas. Frankfurt, vol 1.
Brown, L., and Amadon, D. 1968. Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World. Feltham.
Crook, J. H. 1965. ‘The adaptive significance of avian social organisations’.
Sym. zool. Soc. Lond., 14: 181-218.
Cullen, E. 1957. ‘Adaptations in the Kittiwake to cliff-nesting’. Ibis, 99: 275-302.
Farner, D. S. 1967. ‘The control of avian reproductive cycles’. Proc. Int. Orn.
Congr., 14: 1 07- 1 33.
HanzAk, J. 1952. ‘The Great Crested Grebe, its ecology and economic significance’.
Acta Mus. nat. Prague, 8b: 1-37.
Harrisson, T. H., and Hollom, P. A. D. 1932. The Great Crested Grebe Enquiry,
1931. London. (Reprinted from Brit. Birds, 26.)
Holley, A. J. F. 1970. ‘Some aspects of rearing the young in Larus gulls at Stert
Island — an interim report’. Bristol Orn., 3: 100-117.
Hollom, P. A. D. 1951. ‘Great Crested Grebe sample census: report to end of
1950’. Brit. Birds, 44: 361-369.
Howard, H. E. 1929. An Introduction to the Study of Bird Behaviour. Cambridge.
Huxley, J. S. 1914. ‘The courtship-habits of the Great Crested Grebe ( Podiceps
cristatus ) ; with an addition to the theory of sexual selection’. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond.,
Kop, P. P. A. M. 1971. ‘Geslachtsvcrhouding bij de Fuut, Podiceps cristatus'. Levende
Nat., 74: 39-41.
Kruuk, H. 1964. ‘Predators and anti-predator behaviour of the Black-headed Gull
(Larus ridibundus L.)’ Behaviour Suppl., 1 1.
Lack, D. 1947. ‘The significance of clutch-size’. Ibis, 89: 302-352.
1950- ‘The breeding seasons of European birds’. Ibis, 92: 288-316.
1968. Ecological Adaptations for Breeding in Birds. London.
Lees, J. 1946. ‘All the year breeding of the Rock-dove’. Brit. Birds, 39: 136-141.
Lofts, B., and Murton, R. K. 1968. ‘Photoperiodic and physiological adaptations
regulating avian breeding cycles and their ecological significance’. J. fool., Lond.,
155: 327-394-
Macan, T. T., and Worthington, E. B. 1951. Life in Lakes and Rivers. London.
McCartan, L., and Simmons, K. E. L. 1956. ‘Territory in the Great Crested Grebe
Podiceps cristatus re-examined’. Ibis, 98: 370-378.
Marshall, F. H. A. 1936. ‘Sexual periodicity and the causes which determine it’.
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Ser. B, 226: 423-456.
Melde, M. 1973. Der Haubentaucher Podiceps cristatus. Wittenberg Lutherstadt.
Mylne, C. K. 1963. ‘Film on Great Crested Grebes’. Ibis, 105: 428.
Owen, D. F. i960. ‘The nesting success of the Heron Ardea cinerea in relation to the
availability of food’. Proc. zool. Soc. Lond., 133: 597-617.
Patterson, I. J. 1965. ‘Timing and spacing of broods in the Black-headed Gull
Larus ridibundus' . Ibis, 107: 433-459.
Perrins, C. M. 1970. ‘The timing of birds’ breeding seasons’. Ibis, 112: 242-255.
Prestt, I., and Jefferies, D. J. 1969. ‘Winter numbers, breeding success, and
organochlorine residues in the Great Crested Grebe in Britain’. Bird Study, 16:
168-185.
Schiermann, G. 1927. ‘Untersuchungen an Nestern des Haubentauchers’. J. Orn.,
75= 619-638.
Simmons, K. E. L. 1954. ‘The advertising behaviour of the Great Crested Grebe'.
Bird Study, 1 : 53-56.
1955. Studies on Great Crested Grebes. London. (Reprinted from A vie. Mag., 61.)
1967a. ‘Ecological adaptations in the life history of the Brown Booby at
437
Breeding adaptations in the Great Crested Grebe
Ascension Island’. Living Bird, 6: 187-212.
1967b. ‘The role of food-supply in the biology of the Brown Booby Sula
leucogaster at Ascension Island’. M.Sc. thesis, University of Bristol.
1968a. ‘Some observations on families of Great Crested Grebes’. Bristol Orn.,
1 : 21-26.
1968b. ‘The weed ceremony of the Great Crested Grebe’. Birds, 2: 122-125.
1968c. ‘Winter flocking and behaviour of Little and Great Crested Grebes’.
Brit. Birds, 6 1 : 556-558.
1970a. ‘The Great Crested Grebe’. In Private Lives, edited by J. Boswall.
London, pp 89-101.
1970b. ‘Ecological determinants of breeding adaptations and social behaviour
in two fish-eating birds’. In Social Behaviour in Birds and Mammals, edited by J. H.
Crook. London and New York, pp 37-77.
1 970c. ‘The biology of the parent-chick stage in the Great Crested Grebe
Podiceps cristatus'. Ph.D. thesis, University of Bristol.
1975- ‘Further studies on Great Crested Grebes’. Bristol Orn., 8: in press.
Southern, N. FI., Vaughan, R., and Muir, R. C. 1954. ‘The behaviour of young
Tawny Owls after fledging’. Bird Study, 1 : 101-1 10.
Thomson, A. L. 1950. ‘Factors determining the breeding seasons of birds; an
introductory review’. Ibis, 92: 173-184.
Tinbergen, N. 1967. ‘Adaptive features of the Black-headed Gull’. Proc. Int. Orn.
Congr., 14: 43-59.
, Broekhuysen, G. J., Feekes, F., Houghton, J. C. W., Kruuk, H.,
and Szulc, E. 1962. ‘Eggshell removal by the Black-headed Gull, Larus ridibundus
L. : a behaviour component of camouflage’. Behaviour, 19: 74-1 17.
Tucker, B. W. 1934. The Great Crested Grebe Investigation in Oxon, Berks and Bucks.
Oxford. (Reprinted from Rep. Oxford orn. Soc., 1932-33.)
Wilson, R. S. 1971. ‘The decline of a roach Rutilus rutilus (L.) population in Chew
Valley Lake’. J1. Fish Biol., 3: 129-137.
Witherby, H. F., Jourdain, F. C. R., Ticehurst, N. F., and Tucker, B. W.
1940. The Handbook of British Birds. London, vol 4.
Dr K. E. L. Simmons, Department of Psychology, The University, Leicester
LE I 7RH
Notes
Egg-laying by the Great Crested Grebe Although the behaviour
of Great Crested Grebes Podiceps cristatus has been intensively
studied, many questions are still open. One such question is how
Great Crested Grebes lay their eggs, and whether they exhibit
any special behaviour during and after laying.
The photographs on plate 63 show two stages in the laying process.
This begins when the female sitting on the nest suddenly raises and
then quivers the closed wings a little, without opening them. After
one to two minutes this behaviour is replaced by treading move-
ments of the feet. Although the bird does not raise herself at all,
these movements slowly push her on to the edge of the nest, and any
eggs already laid become visible. When her cloaca is approximately
above the nest hollow, rhythmic movements of the orifice indicate
that the egg is coming, which then appears as a bright whitish-green
patch in the widening cloaca. Slowly, almost hesitatingly, the egg is
squeezed out (plate 63a) ; deposition occurs after more than half a
minute of intensive pressing.
Because part of the upper femur, as in all grebes, is developed
in such a way that the legs protrude far back on the body, the cloaca
is lifted so much when the bird is lying on the nest that the egg
is ejected horizontally.
Once the egg is laid, the female raises herself and beats her
wings, only half open, for one to two minutes (plate 63b). After a
further period of standing over the nest hollow, she slips into the
water. She may resume incubation after she has jumped up on to the
nest platform again, or she may leave this to the male; in the latter
situation she accompanies him to the nest, as if to reassure herself
that laying has been successful.
From these observations it seems probable that the wing-beating
of the Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis noted by H. Bandorf
(1970, Der Zwerglaucher, p. 1 1 3) in similar circumstances was part
of the normal behaviour following egg-laying ; the author suggested
that its function might be to dry out the wing feathers, since it
was raining heavily at the time. M. Wiechmann
Ingelheimerstrasse 24, 6 Frankfurt-am-Main j6, West Germany
Dr K. E. L. Simmons, whose paper on the breeding biology of the
Great Crested Grebe appears on pages 413-437, informs us that
sequences showing the behaviour of the female after laying the egg
are included in the film ‘A Waterbird’s World’ made a number of
years ago by C. K. Mylne for the Royal Society for the Protection
of Birds and that what seem to be similar ‘wing-beating’ movements
Notes
439
are sometimes performed by the relieved bird (apparently of either
sex) at change-over during incubation. Eds.
‘Foot-paddling’ behaviour of Pied-billed Grebes In March
and April 1972, in central Florida, USA, I spent many hours
watching Pied-billed Grebes Podilymbus podiceps on lakes in and
around Orlando and Winter Park. On four occasions I noted a form
of ‘foot-paddling’, in which the birds swam close to the bank where
there was a narrow rim of emergent vegetation, and, while squatting
in shallow water, made vigorous and alternate paddling movements
with the feet. These stirred up sediment and dislodged small fish
from crevices in the bank, which were avidly swallowed.
Incidentally, it may be of interest that twice I noticed feather-
eating while preening was taking place. The feathers in question
appeared to be plucked from the flanks. Bernard King
Gull Cry , g Park Road, Newlyn, Cornwall
Purple Heron chick regurgitating young Little Grebe On
25th May 1970 I was ringing nestling Purple Herons Ardea purpurea
in a colony near Las Nuevas in the Parque Nacional de Donana,
south-west Spain. One of them regurgitated a dead half-grown
Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis immediately following handling.
The grebe weighed 62 gm and had been swallowed whole. The
heron was probably being fed exclusively by its parents, since it was
still on the nest.
Referring specifically to the Goto Donana colonics, Archioos del
Instituto de Aclirnatacion (Almeria), 9: 72, lists carp Carassius, eels
(Apodes), Water Snakes Natrix maura, and larvae of dragonflies
(Odonata) and beetles (Goleoptera) as recorded prey of the Purple
Heron. The Handbook (3: 135) included young Great Crested Grebe
Podiceps cristatus among recorded prey, but did not mention Little
Grebe. The weights of eight full-grown Little Grebes mist-netted on
the Coto Donana in 1970 were 135-185 gm (mean 159 gm).
P. J. Belman
toy Grange Road, London W5 3PH
P. J. Olney comments that the Purple Heron, throughout its
range, takes a wide variety of prey, though fish and insects (and their
larvae) probably make up the majority of the food in most areas.
Birds have been recorded before — see Birds of the Soviet Union
(1966-68), vol. 2; Birds of West Central and Western Africa (1970),
1 : 34 (which mentions ‘young waterfowl’); Alauda, 7: 177- 197; and
Proc. hit. Orn. Congr., 9: 415-422, as well as The Handbook — but
these are rarely identified and do not appear to form a significant
part of the diet. Eds
440
Notes
Common Sandpiper eating butterflies In the morning of 7th
September 1973, on the Scrape at Minsmere bird reserve, Suffolk,
1 watched a Common Sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos catching butter-
flies. It ran a few steps into a clump of sea aster, emerging almost
immediately with a butterfly in its bill. It then ran to the nearest
pool of water, dunked the prey several times and swallowed it
whole with remarkable ease. The bird did this three times in close
succession. I also noted a repeat performance, possibly by the same
bird, in the afternoon. On two occasions the butterfly was identified
as a Small Tortoiseshell Aglais urticae; this species was particularly
numerous at the time. R. J. Waters
Royal Holloway College , Egham Hill, Egham, Surrey
Woodpigeons cooing while on the ground In 1941 I submitted
a note, published in Brit. Birds, 34: 263, of a Woodpigeon Columba
palumbus uttering the ‘song’ coo while on the ground. In his editorial
comment, the late B. W. Tucker stated that, although the courtship
coo may sometimes be given on the ground, he himself knew of no
instance of the ‘song’ coo being so given, but that this had been
mentioned by J. F. Naumann as of rare occurrence. A second
instance was recorded by me in Brit. Birds, 50: 254.
I now have a further record of this unusual behaviour in the
Woodpigeon. On 16th April 1974, at Newcastle, Co Wicklow,
a bird that had been feeding on my garden lawn stood up and ‘sang’
its full coo twice. Watching it from only ten metres, I noticed that
the bill remained closed during cooing, the throat being puffed
out. R. F. Ruttledge
Doon, Newcastle, Greystones, Co. Wicklow
Starling feeding lavender leaves to juvenile At 10.00 hours on
19th May 1974, in my garden at Brentry, Bristol, I saw an adult
Starling Sturnus vulgaris pull off two leaves, each about 2 cm in
length, from a bush of lavender Lavandula spica. The leaves were
then fed to a newly flown juvenile which accompanied the adult.
A. P. Radford
2 Wyck Beck Road , Brentry , Bristol bsio 7je
Starling feeding dandelion flower to juvenile In May 1973, on
the lawn of my garden at Ipswich, Suffolk, I watched a parent
Starling thrust a flower-head of dandelion Taraxacum officinale into a
juvenile’s mouth. After one ot two abortive attempts, the juvenile
apparently swallowed the flower-heacl successfully. I did not see
the parent pluck the flower-head off the plant. D. R. Warren
iog Larchcroft Road , Ipswich , Suffolk ipi 6pq
Notes
441
Dr Radford also writes that in his garden ten days earlier he had
watched a male Blackbird Turdus merula eat two whole flowers and
several individual petals of fallen apple blossom. Last year we
published two notes on the use by birds, for food or nest material,
of various common garden herbs and flowers (see Brit. Birds, 66:
231, 235). G. W. H. Davison, author of the second of these, adds
that he has frequently seen Starlings sitting in a clump of male
fern Dryopteris jilix-mas and pulling pieces of dead brown fronds
from it, though for what purpose he has been unable to ascertain.
There was also a report by P. Saltaire in the Daily Mirror of 13th
June 1974 of Starlings carrying away beakfuls of leaves of sage
Salvia officinalis from a large bush in his garden at Highclifife,
Hampshire, ‘each year about the time the young hatch . . . , pre-
sumably to their nests’. Eds
Letters
Gapeworms in waders In connection with the note by David
Cabot (Brit. Birds , 66: 365), I should like to point out that earth-
worms, slugs and snails are not true intermediate hosts of the gape-
worm Syngamus tiachea. Invertebrates act merely as transport hosts.
The infective larvae of these nematode worms may be swallowed by
various invertebrates in which they become encysted (see, e.g.,
Soulsby 1969) but do not undergo development as in an intermediate
host. Transport hosts are not essential and birds may become in-
fested by merely eating infective larvae, though there is some
evidence that passage, at least through earthworms Lumbricus terres-
tris , renders the larvae more highly infective to birds such as poultry
and presumably, to other species.
Although there are few published records of gapeworms in
waders, I see no reason why the parasites should be rare in these
birds. It is known that Syngamus trachea is widespread in birds,
occurring in at least eleven orders, namely Anseriformes, Falconi-
formes, Galliformes, Gruiformes, Gharadriiformes, Columbiformes,
Psittaciformes, Strigiformes, Apodiformes, Piciformes and Passeri-
formes (Keymer 1969). It is also well known that young birds of
many, and probably all, species are more susceptible to the infesta-
tion than adults. It is likely, therefore, that waders become infested
on the breeding grounds when young. As the parasites are not host-
specific, birds other than waders are therefore also presumably
capable of spreading the disease directly, or indirectly through invert-
brate transport hosts such as earthworms. According to Rev F. C. R.
Jourdain (in The Handbook, 4: 169, 236, 399), earthworms of the
442
Letters
genus Lumbricus are eaten by Lapwings Vanellus vanellus, Curlews
Numenius arquata and Dunlins Calidris alpina, all of which were listed
as known hosts by Mr Cabot. There seems no reason, therefore, why
these species of waders at least should not become infested by
eating earthworms. I. F. Keymer
The Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London nwi 4RY
REFERENCES
Keymer, I. F. 1969. In Diseases of Cage and Aviary Birds, edited by M. Petrak.
Philadelphia, p. 410.
Soulsby, E. J. L. 1969. Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domesticated Animals.
London, pp. 203-206.
Cuckoos and Reed Warblers Dr D. C. Seeks paper {Brit. Birds,
66: 528-535) on egg-laying by the Cuckoo Cuculus canorus, based on
data collected by the late E. P. Chance, brought back vivid memories
to me of the first serious field-work I undertook as a schoolboy in
the Droitwich area of Worcestershire during the Second World War.
Lacking the guidance of any other birdwatchers or naturalists, I had
become (like so many of my own and previous generations) an
egg-collector. A Cuckoo’s egg was a particularly treasured find. I
read Chance’s book on The Truth about the Cuckoo (1940) avidly
and, thus inspired, worked a small section of disused canal between
Droitwich and Salwarpe where Reed Warblers Acrocephalus scirpaceus
were the hosts. Success was at first moderate, with three eggs in
1943 and one in 1944. In 1945, however, after more or less casually
finding the first Cuckoo’s egg on 29th May, I put Chance’s methods
into more determined use and tried to find every Reed Warbler
nest, from which I removed all eggs. I went on to find five more
Cuckoo eggs in the area: on 6th, 13th, 15th, 17th, and 22nd June.
The first of these was laid in the afternoon (between visits), and
the others all found probably on the day after laying. All nine eggs
collected in the Salwarpe area of the canal in 1943-45 were identical
in colour and markings, as was a tenth found on 18th June 1945 on
another part of the canal between Droitwich and Hanbury, about
5 km away. I still have seven of these eggs and have no doubt that
they were all the product of one female (which I called ai), all
being of a grey, speckled variety and quite different from the eggs
of two other female Cuckoos using the Hanbury end of the canal —
b i (with brown eggs) and di (with greenish-grey eggs). Cuckoo ai
obviously used at least two distinct areas for laying in 1945; this
would explain the apparent lulls in laying on the Salwarpe section
of the canal for example between 29th May and 6th June, but it
should also be remembered that Chance was of the opinion that
the Cuckoo lays its eggs in batches equivalent to the clutches of
non-parasitic species, a point not mentioned by Dr Seel.
Letters
443
I am not claiming there is anything unusual or highly original
in these juvenile observations of mine, but they do show that (i)
the same Cuckoo will frequent the same area for at least three years,
and (2) she may have exclusive use of hosts in one area while sharing
another with at least two more Cuckoos. But it is a third discovery I
made — and which I have never seen mentioned in the literature —
that is of particular interest. In taking all eggs, from both parasitised
and non-parasitised Reed Warbler nests, I found a clear dichotomy
in the subsequent behaviour of the hosts: in all cases when nests
free of a Cuckoo’s egg were robbed, the owners deserted that nest
and built again elsewhere; however, when a Cuckoo egg had been
removed as well, the nest was not deserted but was used again for
the replacement laying and even for a third clutch if robbed again.
Now I am fully aware that this finding, which I still remember
clearly, needs substantiating and documenting properly by further
research; but, if true, it would suggest that, while there is survival
value in not using the same nest again after the predation of non-
parasitised clutches (in case the predator should return), it is of
greater survival value to retain that nest after the predation of
parasitised clutches, because a Cuckoo does not normally use the
same nest twice. K. E. L. Simmons
Department of Psychology , The University , Leicester lei 7RH
The origin of British Aquatic Warblers In analyses of the
1958-67 records of Aquatic Warblers Acrocephalus paludicola in
Britain and Ireland (Sharrock 1973, 1974), I have previously inter-
preted the pattern of autumn occurrences as minor displacement
of birds migrating south-westwards from the most north-westerly
parts of the European breeding range. With many additional
records now available, the pattern now suggests an alternative
explanation. Almost 70% of the records have been in the eight
English south coast counties from the Isles of Scillv to Kent and
were distributed as follows:
Hampshire &
Scilly Cornwall Devon Dorset Isle of Wight Sussex Kent
6% 9% '3% 18% 15% 6% 3%
If the birds were arriving from the east, one would expect a more
south-easterly bias, with more in Sussex and Kent (as well as Essex,
Suffolk, Norfolk, Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, which together pro-
duced only 5%). The concentrated distribution (nearly half of all
records — 99 out of 214 — in Dorset and adjoining counties) is
reminiscent of species such as Barred Warbler Sylvia nisoria and
Scarlet Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus (36% and 67% of 1958-67
records in Shetland), the occurrences of which have been attributed
to reverse migration.
444
Letters
It seems distinctly possible that the autumn occurrences of Aquatic
Warblers result from reverse migration on a north-westerly course
of birds from Italy. Perhaps a recovery or control of a foreign-
ringed bird may one day suggest which of the alternative explana-
tions is correct. J. T. R. Sharrock
59 Curlew Crescent, Bedford MK.4 1 7HY
REFERENCES
Sharrock, J. T. R. 1973. ‘Scarce migrants in Britain and Ireland during 1958-67.
Part 9. Aquatic Warbler, Barred Warbler and Red-breasted Flycatcher’.
Brit. Birds, 66: 46-64.
1974. Scarce Migrant Birds in Britain and Ireland. Berkhamsted.
News and comment Robert Hudson
Growth of the British and Irish list The number of full species admitted to the
British and Irish list during the 17 decades which have elapsed since 1800 has
varied from as few as four to as many as 27 per decade, the average being 13;
Kenneth Williamson has recently written an interesting analysis of these, entitled
‘New bird species admitted to the British and Irish lists since 1800’, published in
the Systematics Association Special Volume no. 6, The Changing Flora and
Fauna of Britain, edited by D. L. Hawksworth (1974, Academic Press). The
climatic amelioration in north-west Europe since the 1890’s permitted west-
ward expansions of breeding range by a number of northern species, resulting in a
greater incidence of vagrant appearances in Britain by them; while northward
range expansions by several southern species has led to their appearing with
increased frequency in Britain and Ireland, mainly as a consequence of spring
overshooting in anticyclonic weather. However, the most dramatic change in
vagrancy patterns has concerned American species. During the last 1 70 years, the
decadal average of Palearctic newcomers has been 7.4, and of Nearctic species
3.6. Yet during the last 20 years over half of the new species have been of American
origin, representing four out of five new families and 20 out of 25 new genera;
there has also been a corresponding dramatic increase in the numbers of records
of long-standing Nearctic vagrants. During these 20 years the relative positions
of the Azores high pressure and Icelandic low pressure systems have altered, the
latter now being about ten degrees of latitude farther south, and also farther west,
than was the case earlier this century. A probable consequence of this is that the
mean path of the Atlantic storm-track on the south side of depressions is now more
opportunely placed than previously to bring about transatlantic flights from North
America to Ireland and Britain. Twitchers have never had it so good!
New reserves at home and abroad The Sussex Trust for Nature Conservation
Newsletter (no. 47) reports its acquisition of the largest remaining reed-bed in the
county: 12 hectares (29^ acres) at Filsham, near Hastings. The area has a parti-
cularly rich flora, and is also important for its bird life; over 170 species have been
recorded, 42 have bred, and even Bearded Tits have been numerous there on
occasion. For birds, the area is particularly important in autumn, when many
thousands of Acrocephalus warblers pass through, and up to 70,000 hirundincs roost
in the reeds. Elsewhere in Sussex, it is reported that 6£ km of unspoilt coastline,
News and comment
445
with 150-metre cliffs, three deep glens and views over Rye Bay to Romney Marsh,
are among the attractions of the Hastings Country Park which opened in mid-
July ( Habitat , August). Farther north, the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Trust has declared
its first reserve, the Tow Hill Nature Reserve on the western slopes of Snaizeholme
Valley, near Hawes. The area, formerly two hill farms, will comprise 20 hectares
(50 acres) of commercial forestry enterprise, a two-hectare (five-acre) pinetum,
collections of birds and willow species, while the rest will be grazed by sheep and
cattle. It is intended that Tow Hill Reserve will provide facilities for research and
education.
Abroad, we learn ( Council for Europe Newsletter, 74-8) that two important national
parks are to be created in west Norway. One will be in the Dovre Mountains,
consisting of 265 square km, of which 57 square km will be designated protected
landscape, where road-building, housing and the construction of hydro-electric
power stations will normally be prohibited. The other will cover 3,400 square km
of public and private land on the Hardangervidda. There are proposals that five
more areas, covering 1,190 square km. be designated as protected landscapes.
New to science Considerable interest has been shown in a report, earlier this
year, that a new honeycreeper (Drepanididae), as yet unnamed, had been
discovered on the island of Maui, Hawaii — a House Sparrow-sized bird having a
black mask as its most distinctive plumage character. This discovers- is mainly
of surprise for being made on a comparatively well-worked archipelago; but bird
species new to science are still being described at the surprising rate of three per
year, on average. Since 1966 (inclusive) 31 new species have been described and
named, though some of these are likely to be sunk into the synonymies of previously-
known species. Eleven new species (excluding the aforementioned honeycreeper)
have been described in the last four years. Only one of these is Palcarctic:
Locustella amnicola, a grasshopper warbler from Sakhalin, cast Siberia (1972, £ool.
Zh-, 51: 1896). South America has produced Cypseloides phelpsi from Venezuela
and Guyana, a swift previously confounded with C. rutilus which is now restricted
to Trinidad (1972, Contrib. Sci., no. 229) ; Synallaxis courseni from Peru, a member of
the Furnariiclae or ovenbirds (1971, Auk, 88: 179); Conirostrum tamaraguensis. a
1 warbler from Chile (1974, Auk, 91 : 203); and Hemispingus parodii, a new tanager
also from Peru (1974, Wilson Bull., 86: 97-103). A distinctive wood warbler.
Dendroica angelae, has been discovered on Puerto Rico (1972, Auk, 89: i-t8). a
(Caribbean island whose avifauna had been considered well known. Turning to
Africa, the little-known area of south-west Madagascar has produced a new rock
thrush, Monticola bensoni (1971, Ostrich, suppl. 9: 83-90), and a bulbul. Phyllastrephus
apperti (1972, Ibis, 1 1 4 : 89-92); while another new bulbul, Andropadus hallae. has
been described from the Zaire Republic, formerly the Belgian Congo (1972,
Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl., 92: 138-141). More controversial, perhaps, is the claim for two
new weavers. Hypochera lorenzi and H. incognita, from Nigeria and Angola respec-
tively; these were named on the basis of host-specific brood parasitism, the young
having mouth-markings and begging calls specialised to single estrildine host
species (1972, J. Orn., 1 13: 229-240). The classification of the parasitic weavers in
the subfamily Viduinae is still a matter of debate.
It is hardly surprising that most novelties discovered nowaday-s are from the
wilds of South America, Africa and Australasia. Probably there are exceedingly
few Palearctic birds worthy of species rank awaiting discovery; other than Locu-
stella amnicola (above), the last 40 years have seen only three serious claimants.
These concern the Afghan Snowfinch Montifringilla theresae, reported in 1937 from
Afghanistan (Bull. Brit. Orn. Cl.. 58: 10) ; Vaurie’s Nightjar Caprirnulgus centralasicus.
described in i960 from Sinkiang. western China (Amer. Mus. Novit., no. 1985);
and a hooded gull, Larus relictus. which was known from a single Mongolian
specimen, thought to be a hybrid (1962. Auk. 79: 303), until the discovery of a
446 News and comment
breeding colony in Kazakhstan in 1969 led to the realisation that this appears
to be a valid species (J?h. Kazakh. Acad. Sci. 1970: 1).
British Library of Wildlife Sounds BLOWS has now completed five years’
progress, and feels the time has come for it to be brought to the attention of
zoologists. Its purpose is twofold: to build up as large a collection as possible of
both published and unpublished recordings of animal sounds, and to enable
scientific workers to make use of this material. Commercially published gramo-
phone records currently held by the Library amount to 1 70 sets comprising over
450 discs, containing about 10,000 recordings (or ‘cuts’) covering some 2,500
animal species. Unpublished recordings consist of duplicates of the natural history
section of the BBC sound archive (4,000 cuts of 1,000 species), and recordings on
tape (over 1,500 cuts of nearly 700 species) contributed by individual recordists of
wildlife sound. These last are concerned mainly with European, Antarctic and
African species, but there have recently been a few contributions from Argentina,
New Zealand and Australia. To date, the vast majority of recordings are of birds
but the collection does include many amphibian, mammal, insect, reptile and even
fish sounds. Gramophone records cannot be lent, but they can be listened to at the
Institute. Copies of tape recordings can be supplied for a nominal copying fee to
anyone wishing to use them for private research. Offers of new material, and any
other queries, should be sent to BLOWS at the British Institute of Recorded Sound,
29 Exhibition Road, London SW7.
Brent Goose research For the past two winters the Wildfowl Trust has been
trapping and marking Brent Geese on the Essex coast and, in smaller numbers, on
the Wash, in order to study their movements and social behaviour. The geese
are given a 24 mm high coded Darvic ring on each leg, yellow in Essex, white
elsewhere in England, while green is to be used for a similar exercise in the Nether-
lands. Each ring bears a combination of letters and numerals for individual identifi-
cation, and these can be read at up to 250 metres. As these Darvic rings are being
used on both legs, conventional metal leg rings are not being used except in a few
special circumstances. In addition, the geese have their undertail-coverts dyed
yellow (with picric acid) so that they can be picked out at longer ranges. Of 60
marked during the first season, 38 were identified the following winter, and two
more were shot abroad on the autumn migration. A further 53 1 were colour-ringed
last winter, and produced many subsequent sight records between the Wash and
Poole Harbour, while nearly 80 were identified in Germany and the Netherlands
on spring passage back to the breeding grounds. Much useful information has been
obtained about winter movements in Britain, in particular. This work will be
continued in the coming winter, though this may well be the final season; and it is
therefore vital that all sightings of marked birds be reported to: The Wildfowl
Trust (Brent Project), c/o Rugwood Farm, Foulness Island, Southend-on-Sea,
Essex.
Recent appointments We learn that Professor George Dunnet has been
appointed to the Regius Chair of Natural History at Aberdeen University, replac-
ing Professor V. C. Wynne-Edwards who retired in September. George Dunnet
has been Professor of Field Studies since 1971 (see ‘News and comment’, September
1971), prior to which he had established and developed the Culterty Field Station,
Newburgh, while senior lecturer in ecology to the University.
The Nature Conservancy Council has announced that Dr Michael Gane has
been appointed to the new post of Director England, and will take up his duties on
1st December. Dr Gane is at present Director of the Project Planning Centre for
Developing Countries at the University of Bradford; previously he was Senior
Research Officer in economics at the Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford
News and comment
447
University, following service as a Forest Officer in Africa. As Director England of
the NCC, he will have his own headquarters, and, through his Regional Officers,
will direct a staff of 160 and be responsible for 67 National Nature Reserves and
2,010 Sites of Special Scientific Interest.
Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds
July reports D. A. Christie
These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
A Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophris was present in the gannctry on
Hermaness, Unst (Shetland), throughout the summer. Following the June report
of a Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis inland (Brit. Birds, 67: 398), another was seen
in July even further from the coast, at Walton Dam, Chesterfield (Derbyshire),
on 6th after strong WNW winds; it eventually flew off south-east ( cf Brit. Birds,
67 : 175). On the last day of the month a Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus
appeared at Tcesmouth (Co. Durham), but that was the only July report of this
pelagic species (cf. Brit. Birds, 66: 458). Two Cory’s Shearwaters Calonectris
diomedea passed Folkestone (Kent) on 11th. A belated report concerns a Little
Shearwater P. assimilis off Islay (Argyll) on 30th June.
Very few southern herons were found: single Little Egrets Egretta garzetta in
the Axe estuary (Devon) on nth and at Dungencss (Kent) on 30th: and single
adult Cattle Egrets Bubulcus ibis at Maytham Wharf in the Rother Valley (Kent /
Sussex) from mid-month to about 16th August and in the Horsey area of Norfolk
for a week towards the end of July. At Cley (Norfolk) Spoonbills Platalea
leucorodia increased to three at the end of June and some or all of these were
present throughout July, while up to two were at Minsmcre (Suffolk) from 2nd;
one appeared at Stodmarsh (Kent) on 20th with two there on 22nd. and one was
seen at Blithfield Reservoir (Staffordshire) on five dates between 13th and 22nd,
presumably the same bird visiting Belvide Reservoir (also Staffordshire) on 14th;
there was another reported at Pitsford Reservoir (Northamptonshire) on 21st.
The most intriguing Spoonbill report, however, came from Hickling Broad
(Norfolk) where two adults which arrived on nth were observed carrying sticks
the next day, later being joined by an immature on 1 7th ; unfortunately we have
no reports of any subsequent activity. A Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis
at Whittle Dene (Northumberland) on 26th and 27th was most unusual for the
time of year, and the only Velvet Scoters Alelanitta fusca which came to our notice
were two which flew north at Seaton Sluice (also Northumberland) on 21st. A
female King Eider Somateria spectabilis was seen between Burray and South
Ronaldsay (Orkney) on 4th.
A Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus appeared on the Calf of Man on 16th, and a
male Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni was present at Rainham (Essex1 for a few
days from 31st.
We received reports of only two Kentish Plovers Charadrius alexandrinus, one
at Warsash (Hampshire) on 17th and another at Sandwich Bay (Kent on 26th;
while there were just three Teniminck’s Stints Calidris temminckii, one at Tees-
mouth from 7th to 1 ith, another at Lightshaw Hall Flash (Lancashire) during 14th-
23rd and the other at Farlington marshes (Hampshire) from 20th until nth
August ; and one Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus lobatus, at Cley on 1 6th and
17th. In Scilly there was a Solitary Sandpiper Tringa solitaria on Western
Rocks on 23rd and on Tresco on 25th, while other vagrant American waders were
a Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus in breeding plumage at Horn-
sea Mere (Yorkshire) on 24th, Wilson’s Phalaropes P. tricolor at Washington
(Co. Durham) from 17th to 22nd (cf. Brit. Birds, 66: 459) and at Havergate
448 July reports
(Suffolk) from 25th into August, and Pectoral Sandpipers C. melanolos at Wisbech
sewage farm (Lincolnshire/Norfolk) from 18th until at least 30th, at Dungeness
from 23rd to 4th August, at Chichester gravel pits (Sussex) for a few' days from
27th and at Grafham Water (Huntingdonshire) on 30th. An Avocet Recurvirostra
avosetta was at Slimbridge (Gloucestershire) and two at Sandwich Bay, all on
1 2th, while further north a single bird appeared at Whittle Dene on 17th and
there was an exceptional record of a flock of 35 heading north (passing only
about ten metres from the watch tower) at Seaton Sluice on 25th. A Collared
Pratincole Glareola pratincola was at Belmont, Unst, on 2nd.
The first autumn Long-tailed Skua Stercoranus longicaudus was at Spurn
(Yorkshire) on 27th and 28th. A Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus was still present
at C.logher Head (Co. Louth) during July and an immature remained in the
Alt estuary (Lancashire) for most of the month, while one was at Teesmouth on
4th and 1 1 th ; an Iceland Gull L. glaucoides was still at St Mary’s (Scilly) at
the end of July and another was reported at Sandwich Bay on 23rd. There were
single Mediterranean Gulls L. melanocephalus at Teesmouth on 20th and at Lade
(Kent) on 30th, while at Blackpill (Glamorgan), a much-favoured locality for
this species (see Brit. Birds, 67: 17-24), an immature was present from 1st to
20th and an adult from 15th July to 31st August. A second-year Ross’s Gull
Rhodostethia rosea found at Stanpit marsh (Hampshire) on 1st was still being watched
well into August, and another Ross’s Gull was reported in Harris Sound (Outer
Hebrides) during the month. On 28th a Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica
was identified at Cliffe (Kent), and in the same county there was the most unex-
pected sight of a Puffin Fratercula arctica inland at Bough Beech Reservoir on
20th.
On 27th a Great Spotted Cuckoo Clamator glandarius appeared at Covehithe
(Suffolk). A Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca was watched for six days at the end of
the month between Sea Palling and Ingham (Norfolk), presumably either an
escape or a non-breeding individual. A female Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus was
seen at Shepperton (Middlesex) on 6th and a Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus
palustris was on Fair Isle (Shetland) the day before. Perhaps the most surprising
event in a month very poor for rare passerines, however, was the discovery of an
Aquatic Warbler A. paludicola at Berrow marsh (Somerset) on 7th, the previous
earliest date for this visitor in the last 16 years being 2nd August (Brit. Birds, 53:
423 ; 55: 578). A male Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva near Westerham
(Kent) on 18th was equally out of season — we have come to expect this species
only from late August onwards. Coming finally to shrikes, a Woodchat Lanius
senator was found at Great Bradford Wood (Wiltshire) on 17th, while in Northum-
berland a male Red-backed L. collurio which appeared near Matfen on the last
day of June stayed until 13 th July and a female turned up at Seaton Burn on 25th.
stop press Limited by space, dates refer to October unless otherwise stated.
A Little Shearwater was reported off St Agnes (Scilly) on 7th. There was a
Black-throated Thrush at Sumburgh (Shetland) on 7th, a Booted Warbler on St
Mary’s (Scilly) on 8th, and Pallas’s Warblers at Holy Island (Northumberland)
on 7th, Hartlepool (Co. Durham) on gth and on St Mary’s from 12th to 14th; a
Lesser Grey Shrike at Rye Harbour (Sussex) on 10th; a Little Bunting on Gugh
(Scilly) on 10th; at least ten Serins on St Mary’s during the first half of October.
In September there was a Baltimore Oriole on Fair Isle on 19th and 20th.
s>
pontes/1
Sound Ret0!
Exciting Prizes for Amateur Tape Recordists
Top prize in this year’s Scotch
Wildlife Competition is £250
of hi-fi equipment from Rank
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ranges of Rotel, Akai,
Rank Domus, Empire and
Rank Audio.
* Classes for birds, mammals,
insects and 'atmosphere’
recordings.
* Special award for most
original entry.
* All entrants invited to
London prizegiving in the
spring of 1975.
* No entry fee.
* Many other valuable prizes
— including six original
wildlife paintings.
* Categories for novices and
experienced recordists.
Entry forms and rules from :
W. R. Bowles,
3M United Kingdom Ltd.,
3M House, Wigmore Street,
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Closing date:
January 31, 1975
3m
3M ana Scotch are trademarks. 3M2216
Volume 67 Number 10 October 1974
405 Allen’s Gallinule in Britain and the Palearctic Robert Hudson
413 Adaptations in the reproductive biology of the Great Crested
Grebe Dr K. E. L. Simmons Plates 56-62
Notes
438 Egg-laying by the Great Crested Grebe M. Wiechmann Plate 63
439 ‘Foot-paddling’ behaviour of Pied-billed Grebes Bernard King
439 Purple Heron chick regurgitating young Little Grebe P. J. Belman
440 Common Sandpiper eating butterflies R. J. Waters
440 Woodpigeons cooing while on the ground Major R. F. Ruttledge
440 Starling feeding lavender leaves to juvenile Dr A. P. Radford
440 Starling feeding dandelion flower to juvenile Mrs D. R. Warren
Letters
441 Gapeworms in waders Dr I. F. Keymer
442 Cuckoos and Reed Warblers Dr K. E. L. Simmons
443 The origin of British Aquatic Warblers Dr J. T. R. Sharrock
444 News and comment Robert Hudson
447 July reports D. A. Christie
Robert Gillmor drew the Great Crested Grebe and young (page 437)
Printed by Henry Burt 4 Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA
Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF
Volume 67 Number 11 November 1974
BIRDS OF REGENT’S PARK
OBITUARIES: M. F. M. MEIKLEJOHN
LUDWIG KOCH
Editorial Address n Rope Walk, Rye, Sussex TN31 7NA ( telephone : 07973 2343)
Editors Stanley Cramp, P. F. Bonham, I. J. Fergus. on-Lees, M. A. Ogilvie
and D. I. M. Wallace Photographic Editor Eric Hosking
News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology', Beech Grove,
Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR
Rarities Committee F. R. Smith, 1 17 Hill Barton Road, Exeter, Devon exi 3PP
© The authors and Macmillan Journals Ltd
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Please note that the address of the editorial office
is now as follows:
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(■ telephone : 07973 2343)
Exciting Prizes for Amateur Tape Recordists
Top prize in this year’s Scotch
Wildlife Competition is £250
of hi-fi equipment from Rank
Audio — such as that shown in
the illustration. The winner
can choose from the extensive
ranges of Rotel, Akai,
Rank Domus, Empire and
Rank Audio.
* Classes for birds, mammals,
insects and 'atmosphere’
recordings.
* Special award for most
original entry.
* All entrants invited to
London prizegiving in the
spring of 1975.
* No entry fee.
* Many other valuable prizes
— including six original
wildlife paintings.
* Categories for novices and
experienced recordists.
Entry forms and rules from :
W. R. Bowles,
3M United Kingdom Ltd.,
3M House, Wigmore Street,
London, VV1 A 1ET,
Closing date:
January 31, 1975
3M and Scotch are trademarks. 3M2216
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THE WHITE COTTAGE
PITT, NEAR WINCHESTER
HAMPSHIRE, U.K.
Telephone Winchester (0962) 3746
Volume 67 Number ii November 1974
EC 1974 )
^ J
The birds of Regent’s Park, London, 1959-68
D. I. M. Wallace
Plate 66
INTRODUCTION
Regent’s Park has been visited by London ornithologists lor at
least 130 years. Since 1945 it has been adopted as a place of regular
observation by many observers, notably Stanley Cramp who, in
1945 and 1947, made the first systematic study of the bird population
(Cramp 1949). Then the park supported fewer species than Hyde
Park and Kensington Gardens and this situation appeared to obtain
until 1958 when I began frequent observations and found evidence of
changes in the bird population, in both diversity and total numbers.
My study became compulsive in 1959, and although I had to leave
London in 1965 fellow enthusiasts, notably R. C. Green, maintained
it for ten full years. I published a general description of the area and
preliminary findings in 1961, when study aims and methods had
been standardised into two basic disciplines, one to monitor popu-
lation dynamics and the other to sample migration. This paper
summarises the major findings resulting from the former.
Reference to appendix 1 on pages 467-468 is essential for an
understanding of the means by which the data were collected.
THE STUDY AREA AND ITS SUITABILITY TO BIRDS
Regent’s Park now covers 197 hectares (487 acres). From its northern
edge rises Primrose Hill, covering 35 ha (87 acres), and around it
449
450
Birds of Regent's Park
are border habitats of about 1 1 ha (27 acres) which are integral as
far as the birds are concerned. The total size of the study area
was thus 243 ha (601 acres) (see plate 66).
The residences of St John’s Wood link the park by a ‘pathway’ of
large gardens to the northern suburbs and Hampstead Heath. On its
other sides, tall buildings crowd in and the densely built-up areas
beyond them are relieved only by relatively bird-barren squares.
Large railway complexes lie 400 metres away to the west and 700
metres to the east. Within the study area there is only one dominant
habitat, greensward (or well-trodden grass). Most others occur
piecemeal: their essential characters are classified in table 1. Not
all the habitat types allowed a permanent bird population or even
regular use. The wide dispersal of feeding or resting birds masked
how much more restricted they were in the availability of safe
breeding habitat which, in turn, was impaired by human noise,
close passage and direct interference. The variations in breeding
habitat suitability are given in table 2. Evidently less than a third of
the study area afforded regular opportunities for successful breeding.
There were also marked seasonal changes in habitat suitability and
a judgement of these is given in table 3.
Direct but erratic conservation of bird habitats was carried out
throughout the study period. The most successful operations pro-
vided a ‘lakefowl’ refuge, and a small passerine retreat on the long-
wild site of the demolished Baptist College.
MINIMUM BREEDING POPULATION
During the ten years, 40 species attempted to breed and 37 of these
reared young. The annual number of species breeding varied from
26 to 34, and 23 were successful every year.
The annual register (see appendix 1 for this and other termino-
logy) of the minimum population for 36 out of the 40 species making
breeding attempts is shown in table 4. The omission from it of four
species is due to the lack of any comparable annual measurements of
their populations other than those following. The feral pigeons*
breeding within the park were few (probably no more than five pairs
*Scientific names of all bird species mentioned in the text and tables are given
in appendix 2 on page 468
Table 1 {opposite). Type and area of habitats in Regent’s Park study area,
based mainly on 1965 survey
‘Bread’ here and elsewhere in the paper includes all food left or distributed by
man. Assessing the volume of bread within each habitat type was impossible, but
the frequency of its provision is indicated thus: o = never; / = rarely; 2 = often;
5 = very often or daily
r: of habitat
Approximate area
ha (acres) % of total
Description
| i Greensward
i [Greensward,
ihhinly wooded
I ITrce avenues
( land clumps
1 formal gardens
) '! Zoological
I gardens
| (loads and paths
I ^Open water
Shrubberies,
I wild gardens
j Garden plots
i Amenities
t „arge houses
i emi-natural
i i roods
i Jurseries
i hooded islands
t .eafyard and
ubbish dumps
i* nstable or
I uncertain
60
(150)
25%
Grass with daisies and clover communities; cut
low except in winter; incorporates games
pitches (with bare soil); 1 J ha (3 acres) flood;
bread 2
47
("5)
"9%
As 1, with isolated trees or shrubs, less severely
cut with resultant growth of weeds such as
thistle and chickweed; J ha (2 acres) flood;
bread 2
22
(54)
9%
Generally mature stands, notably of elm, plane,
lime, ash, willow, oak, thorns and flowering
cherry ; undergrowth mainly as 2 ; bread 2
*7
(42)
7%
Intricate patchwork of lawns, shrubberies and
set pieces, featuring roses, dahlias, etc., and a
few aquatic plants; also as 2 and 3; bread 3
1 5i
(38)
6J%
Buildings interspersed with rather bare enclo-
sures, also artificial rock mounds and terraces,
small ponds with cover; also as 4; bread 3
I4J
(36)
6°/
IJ /o
Generally tarmac or concrete, well guttered
and most continually used during daytime;
bread 2
1 4i
(36)
fiO/
u /o
Boating lake of 9 ha (22 acres), ii ha (4 acres)
enclosed, and small ponds; generally free of
surface vegetation but small channels often
choked with leaves; bread 3 ( round edge)
9i
(24)
A0/
4 /o
Dense stands of shrubs or small trees, notably
of laurel, privet, etc., with naturally seeded
holly, elder, etc.; usually some tall trees;
bread 0
9i
(24)
4%
Tiny grass lawns or strips, some also possessing
features of 4; bread 1
9
(22)
3i%
Car parks, restaurant areas, playgrounds, park
offices; generally barren of vegetation (though
not necessarily of food) ; bread 3
3i
(8)
I0/
1 /o
Generally occupied or partly so; almost totally
barren; bread 2
2}
(7)
I 0
1 /o
Generally mature stands, particularly of elm;
where canopy open, marked undergrowth;
where closed, little except leaf mould; 0.6 ha
(1.5 acres) fully protected as bird sanctuary;
bread 0
2
(5)
1%
Glasshouses and flower seeding beds, usually
with fallow areas and many weeds; bread r
2
(5)
1%
As 12 but with high incidence of willows;
canopy closed, thus little undergrowth ; bread 1
t
(2)
i%
Basically open soil or concrete, with variable
covering of plant and human waste; remark-
able summer ‘flush’ of tall weeds and grass;
adjacent to bird sanctuary; bread 3
•3i
(33)
Ln
KH
vO
O
Work areas, excavations, boat wharfs, etc.; no
vegetation; bread i
452 Birds of Regent’s Park
Table 2. Suitability of habitat types for successful breeding, Regent’s
Park, based on 1961-65 surveys
Habitat types
(from table 1)
Percent of
total area
Registered
no. of breed-
ing species
Degree of suitability
1, 6, 7 ( except banks), 16
42 £%
0
Totally unsuitable
2, 9, 10, 11, 13
28*%
3-7
Marginally suitable
3. 5. 15
16%
14-19
Fairly suitable
4^
00
K>
£
13%
18-22
Very suitable
outside the zoo in any year) and most were non-breeding loafers
and foragers from street colonies. Breeding Woodpigeons, favoured
by the extensive canopy and the food potential of the greensward
and several tree species (Goodwin i960), were estimated at 100 pairs
in 1961, rising to 150 pairs by 1965. The fortunes of the Starling
were obscured by its volatile behaviour in summer, but clearly its
population grew to 100 pairs by 1963 and was unchanged in the next
\
Table 3. Judgements of seasonal changes in passerine habitat suitability, Regent’s
Park, based on 1961-65 surveys
Suitability ‘scores’ (estimated from frequency of bird occurrences) : o = virtually or wholly j|
unsuitable ; 1 = marginally suitable (rarely frequented) ; 2 = fairly suitable (often or periodically "
frequented) ; 3 = suitable (continuously frequented) ; 4 = very suitable (continuously frequented .
with marked seasonal concentration) y
WINTER — »
Light Heavy ■■
Habitat types
(from table 1)
Percent of
total area
SPRING
SUMMER
AUTUMN
No snow
or ice
snow
with ice
snow
with ice
1. Greensward
25
I
3
4
1
0
2. Greensward, thinly wooded
!9
2
4
3
2
1
3. Tree avenues and clumps
9
3
4
3
3
2
4. Formal gardens
7
4
4
3
3
2
5. Zoological gardens
61
3
3
4
3
3
6. Roads and paths
6
I
2
3
2
1
7. Open water ( except banks)
6
0
O
0
1
1
8. Shrubberies, wild gardens
4
4
4
3
3
2
9. Garden plots
4
2
3
2
1
1
10. Amenities
3i
I
2
1
2
1
1 1 . Large houses
I
2
I
1
2
2
12. Semi-natural woods
I
4
4
3
3
2
13. Nurseries
I
2
3
2
1
1
14. Wooded islands
I
2
4
3
3
2
15. Leafyard, rubbish dumps
1
2
4
4
3
2
16. Unstable or uncertain
5l
I
2
2
2
1
TOTAL SEASONAL ‘SCORE’
(sum of all area % X ‘score’)
>85-5
305-5
297.0
194.0
1 1 1.0
INDEX OF SEASONAL SUITABILITY
(spring = 100)
IOO
165
160
104
60
453
Birds of Regent's Park
iTable 4. Minimum numbers of pairs of 36 species breeding and/or attempt-
ing to breed, Regent’s Park, 1959-68
An asterisk denotes bird(s) exhibiting initial breeding behaviour
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
l Great Crested Grebe
_
—
_
—
I
*
—
—
—
1 Grey Heron
-
2
'Mallard
50
50
70
78
65
60
55
55
47
46
Tufted Duck
5
10
12
I I
12
to
>3
14
15
I I
1 *00 hard
5
8
9
I I
5
12
10
1 1
10
9
[ Canada Goose
-
*
*
4
4
*
8
10
10
' vfute Swan
—
I
I
—
♦
I
I
I
I
I
Moorhen
9
i7
20
17
18
>4
15
14
12
12
l Hoot
3
3
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
10
locsser Black-backed Gull
1
Herring Gull
-
-
I
I
2
3
3
2
2
2
stock Dove
3
X
*
-
-
-
-
-
*
1
1 "awny Owl
I
I
2
I
2
*
2
I
2
4
' swift
I
♦
5
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Great Spotted Woodpecker
I
I
I
*
-
-
-
-
-
-
'swallow
-
♦
-
—
-
-
-
-
-
I
Harrion Crow
6
8
7
8
8
8
8
8
IO
10
ay
2
I
3
3
3
2
3
4
5
5
Great Tit
6
7
7
6
6
10
12
>4
12
18
Glue Tit
I I
•3
15
>5
>5
>7
20
18
20
24
’oal Tit
-
I
-
-
-
-
1
I
2
4
Wren
IO
»3
12
6
5
5
6
8
1 1
>3
Mistle Thrush
7
7
8
8
8
10
10
10
1 1
1 1
i ong Thrush
35
35
48
50
GO
60
80
5°
50
5°
'Blackbird
100
too
120
150
05
185
200
160
160
150
ttobin
14
>5
18
>5
17
»9
20
20
20
20
Uackcap
-
-
I
-
-
-
2
-
2
3
' Villow Warbler
I
1
potted Flycatcher
4
5
6
8
8
8
9
IO
8
10
Ounnock
4i
47
52
57
55
55
55
50
50
50
*ied Wagtail
I
1
1
1
*
I
I
I
*
1
Greenfinch
9
1 1
15
10
20
20
25
20
19
20
Goldfinch
3
5
5
4
6
6
3
8
5
6
-innet
-
-
*
*
—
*
-
-
*
I
! ullfinch
I
I
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
7
Chaffinch
H
15
17
20
17
*5
10
8
10
12
OTALS
343
377
462
487
5i9
534
573
505
503
536
two years. However, the numbers of Woodpigeons and Starlings
were apparently reduced by 30-50% by 1968. The only estimates of
the House Sparrow population comparable with the above are for
1962-65 when 150-200 pairs were noted.
The 23 species breeding annually represented about two-thirds of
those breeding regularly in Inner London by 1965 (Cramp and
Tomlins 1966) and were only two fewer than those breeding
regularly around Brent Reservoir, Middlesex from 1957 to 1970
454
Birds of Regent's Park
(Batten 1972). The community definitely attracted new permanent
member species during the study period, the average number rising
from 26 in the first five years to 29 in the last. It was only 18 between
1948 and 1953 (Wallace 1961, from Ministry of Works reports).
Recent records from Regent’s Park indicate that the area can
support, at least temporarily, further new breeding species such as
Great Crested Grebe, Grey Heron and Magpie {Bond. Bird. Rep.,
33: 17; 34: Hi 35: 8; 36: 9, 45; 37: 8, 9, 39).
By indexing the changes in the non-passerine population and
various groups of passerines separately, a partial analysis of the
breeding population growth in Regent’s Park over the ten years is
possible :
(i) New or irregular breeding species made no significant contribution to the
total population growth.
(ii) Excluding the Woodpigeon, the non-passerine population grew by only
3%. Habitat restriction and excessive competition constantly frustrated an overall
increase in the lakefowl. The potential of the area had apparently been reached
by 1961. Further additions are likely to be limited to species with unique niches,
such as has happened with the Grey Heron.
(iii) The passerine population grew by at least 45%. Direct observation of the
factors influencing growth was not obtained, but some are suggested later. Growth
was steadiest from 1959 to 1962 and showed the largest surge in 1964. In 1965 a
peak population of at least 568 pairs was reached. This collapsed in 1966 with a
notable reduction in the previously rapidly expanding numbers of Song Thrushes
and Blackbirds. Thereafter the passerine population showed remarkable stability
except for the three tits and the Wren, the last still recolonising the park following
a collapse in 1962.
(iv) The passerines showing the most growth were tits and thrushes, Robin,
Spotted Flycatcher, Bullfinch and Greenfinch, the last overtaking the Chaffinch
as the dominant finch.
(v) All passerine species exhibiting high growth are partly insectivorous and
only three of them regularly took ‘bread’ (see table 1).
(vi) The severe winter of 1962/63 which caused striking withdrawals of several
species during the period of snow cover did not interrupt the total population
growth. (During that winter I found only two corpses.)
SUMMERING POPULATION
A separate measure of the total summering population was obtained
from 1962 to 1965. It included all visible birds and allowed the
estimates presented in table 5. Their trend is consistent with that
of the register and the exceptional population in 1965 is again
obvious. The 1963 figures confirm that total population growth was
uninterrupted by the preceding severe winter.
The summer ‘census’ also isolated the population profiles of
habitat types. Ignoring the inevitable dichotomy on or around the
lake, the most distinct was that of the Zoological Gardens. Although
occupying only 6£% of the study area, it held on average 13% of all
birds and showed high incidences of commensal species, notably 16%
Birds of Regent's Park 455
Table 5. Estimates of total summering population,
Regent’s
Park, June
1962-65
Degree of
1962
1963
1964
1965
interpolation
Lakefowl
54 1
679
572
601
none
Feral pigeon
223
246
273
235
none
Woodpigeon
300
250
700
640
5%
Starling
550
780
690
9°°
5%
House Sparrow
790
1,210
1,000
M55
5%
Other passerines
715
860
900
1,660
20%
TOTALS
3,”9
4,025
4,135
5,i9i
Index (1962 = 100)
100
129
133
167
of all Starlings, 17% of all feral pigeons, and 22-25% °f House
Sparrows.
The summer ‘census’ also demonstrated that many birds used the
park only for feeding and that the populations of several species
contained large non-breeding elements, these being very evident
in the Mallard (at least 200 surplus drakes in any year, in spite of
determined culling and exportation), YVoodpigeon (about 300 non-
breeding birds in 1964 and 1965) and Blackbird (up to 75 apparently
unmated cocks in any year).
LOCAL FACTORS OF THE BREEDING POPULATION INCREASE
Establishing the direct causes of the increase in the breeding popu-
lation was beyond the practice of the study. However, various local
factors were identified :
(i) Notwithstanding earlier comments, the habitat of the study area is relatively
natural. Regent’s Park features in particular a greater incidence of undisturbed
undergrowth, closed canopy and flower cultivation than any other similarly sized
London park. Only the much smaller Holland Park and the gardens of Buckingham
Palace are noticeably richer in plant cover. Furthermore, the layout of pathways
and the privacy of several residences, notably Winfield House, protect its north-
west corner from mass human traffic. Finally, the tree community is well balanced,
with many groups of oaks Qiiercus robur, hawthorns Crataegus monogyna and willows
Salix, and happily few of the bird-barren London plane Platanus hybrida.
(ii) The access to nearby suburban bird communities provided by the garden
pathway to the north is unique for a Central London park.
(iii) Conservation, both conscious and unconscious, had a beneficial effect.
The two sanctuaries offered not only rarely disturbed retreats but also important
sources of food, either through theft of that specially put down (for ornamental
wildfowl) or derived from dense stands of seed-bearing weeds and their insect fauna.
As noted in table I, the provision of ‘bread’ in various forms occurred throughout
the study area but was particularly frequent in the zoo (where several passerines
even stole food from Guy, the Gorilla!), around the lake and at sheltered seats.
Partly edible rubbish was dumped in the leafyard and, owing to changes in park
management, this source of food at least trebled in the ten years.
456 Birds of Regent's Park
(iv) The reduction in smoke pollution achieved in Central London (Cramp and
Tomlins 1966) had a visible effect on the park vegetation. Broad-leaved trees
in particular became noticeably cleaner during the study period, and in 1964
and 1965 their insect fauna was very obvious. Indirect evidence of increasing
insect food came from the more frequent occurrences of bats (Chiroptera), the
establishment in 1966 just north of Primrose Hill of a colony of House Martins
(Cramp and Gooders 1967), and the steady increase in other insectivorous birds
already noted.
(v) The ‘heat isle’ in the central conurbation (Homes et al. 1957) cannot be
ignored, but that its effect is beneficial is only a presumption.
To sum up, I believe that several inherently suitable habitats in
the park were made more attractive by a reduction in pollution and
an associated rise in food supply, both natural and provided. The
arrival of species and individual birds to take this up was probably
assisted by the garden pathway to the north (though there was also
evidence to show that the population was recruited from much farther
afield as well), and the productivity of the population was partly
secured by conservation. Even so, in 1965 the population seemed
to exceed its optimum level. A further increase in passerines,
which were responsible for most of the population growth from 1959
to 1 968, must be considered unlikely and the few observations that I
have made in Regent’s Park in more recent years support this con-
clusion.
EXTERNAL FACTORS OF THE BREEDING POPULATION INCREASE
However the local factors affected the park population, it would
have been surprising if national dynamics had not been reflected.
As demonstrated in table 8, few species were strictly resident and
probably none was isolated. Comparison with other studies shows
many coincidences in trends, but, since the Common Birds Census of
the British Trust for Ornithology did not begin until 1962, only
seven years’ data are directly comparable with national results.
It is therefore necessary to discuss the ten-year period in two parts.
1959 to 1961
Of the park’s common species, none failed to increase over these three years.
It is particularly frustrating that this overall advance cannot be compared with
contemporaneous local and national results similarly acquired. However S.
Cramp (in Homes et al. 1964) gave an assessment of the changes in the Inner
London bird population from 1955 to 1961, pointing to an increasing diversity
of irregularly breeding passerines (notably warblers), steady increases in some
common species (notably Woodpigeon, Song Thrush, Blackbird and Dunnock),
and the establishment of more diverse lakefowl communities (of mixed feral and
wild ancestry). The first of these changes was most evident in Holland Park
(Brown 1963, 1964), but the second and third were characteristic of the study
area. Indeed, they were more visible there than elsewhere in Inner London
(Wallace 1961, cf. Cramp 1949 and Ministry of Works reports). Comparison with
national data on breeding birds, as summarised by Parslow (1967-68), indicates
that all but three of the common park species showed changes in abundance that
457
Birds of Regent’s Park
conformed with either the relevant regional or national trends. The exceptions
were Mallard, Song Thrush and Spotted Flycatcher. The last two of these exhibi-
ted lasting growth between 1959 and 1962, and the unique trend of the Song Thrush
was reinforced by the fact that it held its own against the Blackbird, maintaining
a ratio of breeding abundance close to 1:3 (and in 1965 even reaching 2:5).
Finally, it may be noted that by 1965 Cramp and Tomlins (1966) had found
evidence that no fewer than twelve species were increasing in Inner London. Their
comments were based on a wide survey of localities, including Regent’s Park.
Thus from 1959 to 1961 the growth of the park’s breeding population was associa-
ted with a general advance in bird numbers, though its rate of growth was extra-
ordinary for Inner London.
ig62 to ig68
Over these seven years, the park population did not show the overall advance
of the previous three. The growth wave broke after 1965. By indexing the numbers
of 13 common species (at least 80 pairs over the ten years) on the same base year
as is used in the Common Birds Census, their population trends have been com-
pared with the equivalents published for farmland and woodland (Batten 1971a).
Four results stand out:
(i) The effect of the 1962/63 winter was far less severe in the park than in
farmland, the only species showing a markedly correlated decline being the
Mallard (which was already subject to population control). Only three other
species common to the indices — Wren, Dunnock and Chaffinch — showed any
reduction in breeding numbers (and then an insignificant six pairs in total).
In particular contrast to the national situation, the park Moorhens were un-
touched.
(ii) From 1962 to 1968 seven park species — Carrion Crow, Great and Blue
Tits, Wren, Mistle Thrush, Robin and Greenfinch — showed trends essentially
similar to those in farmland (and latterly woodland), indicating cither growth or a
more or less stable population. In particular, the index movement for the Wren
was uncannily identical from 1964 onwards, and the only marked divergence was
the continued increase in both tits in 1968. Batten associated the general growth
in common resident numbers in these years with a recovery from the trough caused
by the 1962/63 winter, but, as shown above, that correlation cannot be more than
marginally identified in Regent’s Park.
(iii) From 1963 to 1968 the shifts in the populations of four park species —
Song Thrush, Blackbird, Dunnock and Chaffinch — clearly diverged from the
national trends. The breeding numbers of the two thrushes were strikingly reduced
(by 25%) in 1966 and were lower in 1968 than in any year since 1962. In the
same three years from 1966 to 1968 the national populations were either still
expanding or steady. The trend of the Blackbird population can also be related
to those assessed from ringing data for the whole London area and for southern
England during 1957-67 by Batten (1973). Both the park and all-London birds
recovered immediately from a local trough in i960, and once again it appears
that their advance was unhindered by the cold winters of 1961/62 and 1962/63
from which other southern English birds suffered severely enough to produce a
regional trough in 1963. The all-London population growth lasted one year
longer than that in the park, but both were arrested in 1967 when the southern
English birds in total suddenly increased by over 30%. The park Dunnocks were
most numerous in 1962 and there w as no reflection of the dramatic growth in the
national population from 1963 to 1965 (farmland) and from 1964 to 1968 (wood-
land). The park Chaffinches also showed a peak in 1962 but then decreased steadily
for four years. By 1968 their population had yet to recover its 1959 level. Farm-
land Chaffinches did well from 1962 to 1965 and remained almost constant
until 1969, as did their woodland counterparts from 1964 onwards.
458 Birds of Regent's Park
What is so striking about these four exceptions to the national trend is that the
species concerned are all dominant members of the resident passerine avifauna
in lowland Britain. Indeed, they are four of the seven most successful, and yet
clearly their advance was frustrated in the later years of the study. As pointed
out later, there was sexual imbalance in the Chaffinch population, but for the three
other species it is likely that habitat restriction was the fundamental control.
(iv) The fortunes of the scarce or irregular breeding species in the park show
echoes of external population changes (cf. Batten 1971b, 1972, Cramp and Tomlins
1966), the clearest being the withdrawal of the Great Spotted Woodpecker in 1962,
the absence of breeding Stock Doves from 1961 to 1 967, the colonisation by the Coal
Tit from 1965, and the arrival of the Bullfinch from 1958. Even more intriguing
(in their indication of the park’s ability to attract breeding attempts from essentially
migrant species during periods of marked population expansion) were the correla-
tion of the peak Goldfinch population in 1966 with the largest surge yet recorded in
farmland, and the arrival of a pair of Willow Warblers in 1968 after almost con-
tinuous growth in the national numbers since 1962.
It would be idle to expect the population trend of any one bird
community to mirror the national whole, and certainly this did not
happen in Regent’s Park from 1959 to 1968. While the underlying
movements are consistent for most species, the facts that the com-
munity was almost untouched by the coldest winter in southern
and central England for at least fifteen years, and that it
could not sustain growth in common species beyond 1965, are
strictly at variance with the national trends for farmland and wood-
land. Here, perhaps, are the most obvious clues to the advantages
and disadvantages of being a common bird in a central London
park. In such a discrete habitat, local factors can provide favourable
growth circumstances (even protection) for a time, but insufficient
space will dog too much success in the end.
WINTERING POPULATION
As indicated in table 3, the stability of the study area as a wintering
ground was judged to be relatively high unless there was snow.
Human disturbance fell quickly from October and was minimal
from December to early March. Boating ceased and the playing of
ball games, which increased greensward disturbance, was neverthe-
less contained within a shorter diem period. Slow clearance of dead
or broken plants resulted in ground cover remaining thick and pro-
viding excellent shelter for most of the winter.
Not surprisingly the spectrum of wintering species was wide, with
no fewer than 30 being regularly present, another eleven occurring
frequently and hard weather often bringing in at least three more.
The normal diversity of species in winter was therefore greater than
that in summer, being also about 80% of that occurring in the
northern parts of Epping Forest, Essex (Wallace 1972).
Although some of the resident species, notably the Dunnock,
remained around their breeding territories in winter, continuing
459
Birds of Regent's Park
' ; e 6. Maximum counts of common lakefowl in winter, Regent’s Park, 1958/59 to
1967/68
58/
59
59/
60
60/
61
61/
62
62/
63
63/
64
64/
65
65/
66
66/
67
67/
68
Peak dates
within
1 .>ard
724
738
734
672
721
562
555
47'
<400
360
8.xii-i6.i
' 1 :d Duck
86
77
87
107
68
'35
89
80
104
> 100
28.i-8.iii
1 ..ard
28
36
76
83
65
79
69
76
81
90
20. xu-23. ni
II r ‘hen
86
56
70
85
73
84
7'
49
49
50
I 2. XU- 1. Ill
(
25
26
3i
60
63
73
61
65
35
53
i2.i-late ii
the mapped register of the population in winter proved impossible.
However, other disciplines did allow measurement of the wintering
population. Table 6 gives the winter maxima for the most common
lakefowl. The assessment of the complete winter use of the park
waters by them is prevented by erratic counts from late 1964 on-
wards. However, partial analysis of all counts from October to April
confirms for the Mallard a real fall of 18% from 1959/60 to 1963/64
and indicates an overall decrease of 45% over the ten years. Con-
versely, the use of the area by both diving ducks rose by more than
the maxima indicate. From 1959/60 to 1963/64 the overall numbers
of Tufted Duck and Pochard rose by 159% and 155% respectively.
Over the ten years the increase in Pochard may have been as much
as 250%. The increases in the overall winter presence of Moorhen
and Coot were also striking, up by 46% and 161% respectively
between 1959/60 and 1963/64. Thus, of the common lakefowl,
only one species decreased and four made significant gains which
were more or less held. The winter numbers of a feral flock of
Canada Geese grew from under 30 to around 60 in the middle years
of the study.
Gulls were included in the lakefowl counts and again a general
increase in the total wintering population took place. In 1965/66
it exceeded 2,300 birds diurnally. Only the Common Gull became
rarer (and it decreased as a migrant, too). In the case of Herring
and Lesser Black-backed Gulls, whose numbers reached 35 each by
1968, the formation of small breeding populations in Inner London
(Wallace 1964 and London Bird Reports for 1964-72) should be remem-
bered.
Quantifying the winter population of other species depended
mainly on a winter ‘census’. The results for eight years follow in
table 7. Other species that came regularly in winter included Red-
wing and Linnet, the numbers of the latter reaching 213 in February
1960. While the underlying trend is again of a substantial increase
in wintering birds (at least between 1960/61 and 1964/65), it cannot
be linked certainly to the known growth in the minimum number of
breeding pairs (and the total summering population) up to 1965.
460
Birds of Regent’s Park
Table 7. Winter censuses of 17 regular species (other than lakefowl and gulls)
Regent’s Park, 1958/59 to 1965/66
An asterisk denotes that the species, though unseen during the census period, was present in that
winter. The bracketed figures for 1958/59 are suspiciously low, perhaps owing to observer
inexperience
1 958/59 1959/8° 1960/61 1961/62 1962/63 1963/64 1964/65 1965/66
Census period :
3-i
12. xii-
13. xii
io.xii-
1 1 .xii
co e-
16. ii-
23.fi
28.xii-
3-i
i6.xii-
24-xii
8.i-
i6.i
Feral pigeon
401
200
305
159
222
278
212
no count
Woodpigeon
244
75
I l6
222
508
458
825
37°
Carrion Crow
6
12
14
17
24
19
25
3i
Jay
2
6
5
5
6
9
7
6
Great Tit
I
4
12
7
14
19
17
21
Blue Tit
(3)
12
15
29
30
33
23
43
Wren
3
12
6
9
♦
2
4
4
Mistle Thrush
6
5
10
9
IO
12
1 1
8
Song Thrush
42
20
58
84
23
52
74
59
Blackbird
233
396
489
347
278
441
524
423
Robin
(4)
16
24
27
25
14
16
14
Dunnock
(5)
33
46
44
56
61
86
67
Starling
487
115
276
395
522
474
473
35°
Greenfinch
★
8
I
I I
18
14
30
3i
Bullfinch
*
3
2
*
*
10
10
8
Chaffinch
2
4
3
6
1 r
7
8
8
House Sparrow
1,020
1,000
1,148
550
947
1,191
i^o
1,000
totals (except
feral pigeon)
Index (1962/63
(2,058)
1,721
2,225
1,762
2,472
2,816
3,443
2,443
= 1 00)
(83)
70
90
7i
100
'■5
139
99
Comparison of the summer and winter censuses in the five years
when both were possible is made in table 8. Particular attention is
drawn to the status comments which stem from the almost daily
observations under other disciplines. A priori views on the status of
species failed continually throughout the study.
TOTAL NUMBER OF BIRDS BY SEASON
As already indicated in the discussion of summering and wintering
populations, fig. 1 fully illustrates how much higher bird numbers
were from August to February than from March to July (cf. table 3).
It also shows the rapid withdrawal of part of the breeding popula-
tion (both parents and young) in October and November, pointing
again to the actually very complex changes that took place within
an apparently settled community (cf. table 8). In 1959 and i960 the
diurnal population was at its peak in January. In 1964 and 1965,
given the growth in both breeding population and productivity, it
was so in September.
In 1959 and i960 sample counts in association with the mapped
register and winter census provided sufficient data for the annual
B Q
Birds of Regent's Park
461
•]
. e 8. Comparison of winter and summer diurnal populations of 15 regular species,
Uegent’s Park: average counts, winter 1960/61 to 1964/65 and summer 1961-65
The ‘change’ column gives the difference as a percentage of the winter average
Winter Summer Change Comments
i pigeon 235
\i lpigeon
426
240
406
+ 2%
— s0/
5 /o
Virtually sedentary, but few breeding within
park
Little apparent change, but status actually
complex, with some emigration of young in
autumn, marked autumn passage and
winter immigration (with increased roosting)
S
on Crow
20
-35%
Apparent change wholly a function of breed-
ing behaviour (birds becoming secretive)
: Tit
*4
15
+ 7%
Mainly resident
lit
26
30
+ *5%
Not resident, with marked emigration in
autumn and obvious spring return
4
8
+ 100%
Essentially migrant as a breeding species,
withdrawing completely in 1962/63 winter
(winter birds possibly from different,
external population)
•; Thrush
10
1C)
nil
Apparently resident
Thrush
58
103
+78%
Essentially migrant, with under 30 in
1962/63 winter; obvious autumn emigration,
occasional winter immigration, obvious
spring return
bbird
416
392
-6%
Little apparent change, but status probably
complex with at least some winter immigra-
tion
11
21
28
+33%
Partly resident, but also obvious autumn
emigration and spring return
ock
59
64
VO
O ^
CO
+
Mainly resident, but also observed autumn
eruption and apparent spring return
:«g
428
631
+47%
Marked change, but causes difficult to
determine except marked summer influx of
surrounding populations
it» finch
15
39
+ 160%
Essentially migrant; obvious autumn emi-
gration and spring return (some strictly
resident)
inch
7
3'
+340%
Almost totally migrant, with obvious autumn
emigration and spring return, large autumn
and small spring passages, winter vagrancy
(as few as three males certainly resident)
r ; Sparrow
1.039
735
-29%
Local immigrant in winter
cycle of the population to be approximated. This is shown in fig. 1.
Later experience caused doubts over the numerical scale of the 1959 /
60 cycle (probably underestimated by at least 5%), but the basic
rhythm was confirmed. No concerted attempt was made to repeat
the exercise, but the summer and winter censuses and breeding
462
Birds of Regent's Park
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar
SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN WINTER
Fig. 1. Annual cycle of diurnal bird population, Regent’s Park: a minimum popu-
lation, excluding winter visitors, 1959-60 monthly averages; b as a, but including
winter visitors; c as b, but estimated maximum population; d as b, but showing
higher 1964 averages for June, September and December only. These figures
exclude a variable pre-roost assembly of Starlings which has brought the total
park population up to 9,500 birds in September
register allowed new benchmarks for June, September and December
in 1964 and 1965. These are also shown in fig. 1.
TIMING OF SUCCESSFUL BREEDING
The appearances of fledged young were most carefully noted and
yielded information on the timing of successful breeding, summarised
in table 9. Why early breeding is so unsuccessful in Regent’s Park is
not known, though, as already demonstrated in table 3, the study
area was judged to be relatively unsuitable to passerines in spring.
Certainly both intraspecific and interspecific competition for
territories was unusually pronounced in certain groups and species.
A particular study of cock Chaffinches in 1959 showed that 17 failed
to hold song-posts for more than a few days and that such insecurity
was associated with the lack of mates. Thus both territory establish-
ment and pairing were frustrated, and this situation dogged the
Chaffinch in later years as well. As indicated in table 2, suitable
breeding habitat, not mere lebensraum, was at such a premium in
Regent’s Park that it would not be surprising if its division took
longer than in more natural and more uniform habitats. However,
by early summer most species exhibited remarkable tolerance of
neighbours, whether of their own species or another, thus allowing
many marked overlaps and even overlays of territories, and com-
munal feeding of both adults and young.
Birds of Regent's Park 463
1 ble 9. Timing of successful fledging of 22 regular breeding species, Regent’s Park
ider each half-month are the percentages of broods then fledging over the main analysis
r’iods (1961-65 for wildfowl, 1962-65 for other species); an asterisk indicates less than 1%
and/or incidental records during 1966-68
No. broods
in main Mar April May June July Aug Sept Oct
analysis
2 1
2
1
2
I
2
I
2
I
2
1212
.illard
320
♦ *
8
8
25
19
«7
19
2
2
u fted Duck
50
30
40
30
*
*
. chard
50
*
30
40
20
10
1 oorhen
117
♦
3
2
6
32
16
9
23
4
3
1 1
ot
16
♦
6
3*
20
12
3*
*
xxlpigeon
540
*
*
I I
17
33
33
6
*
* * *
rrion Crow
3i
35
39
16
10
^ r
10
*
10
10
30
5®
eat Tit
45
*
45
24
13
13
5
,ie Tit
73
I
29
26
18
22
4
fen
I I
9
18
36
27
10
i-stle Thrush
37
*
8
27
19
*9
8
1 1
8
r ig Thrush
168
*
2
10
12
38
'4
14
7
2
1
uckbird
360
*
8
43
24
>4
8
2
*
*
bin
66
2
6
18
«4
20
23
>4
3
cottcd Flycatcher
36
I I
47
36
6
*
nnnock
66
3
23
*5
18
»7
*7
6
1
urling
255
23
35
35
4
3
•eenfinch
43
*
12
21
23
28
12
4
llfinch
1 1
9
27
36
10
18
ilJdfinch
22
4
4
4
27
27
32
4
uaffinch
25
4
4
40
44
8
Table 10. Surviving young of six lakefowl, Regent’s Park, 1959-68
Minimum no. of
pairs breeding
or attempting
Total
young
fledged
Range of
annual
‘crop’
Comments on annual ‘crop’ and
adverse human factors
a illard
576
1,610
105-225
225 in i960 and 1961 ; 105 in 1973, not
above 1 75 in later years. Shooting and
exportation of surplus drakes
i ifted Duck
i*3
240
8-45
40-45 in 1966 and 1967. Egg theft in
at least two years
« chard
90
190
4-26
Egg theft in at least two years
inada Goose
36
95
9-46
Product of only five years. Egg theft
and/or removal to prevent excessive
growth
oorhen
148
241
ii-35
Young of first brood often fed chicks of
second
>K)t
53
70
1 -1 6
40 in total during 1966-68 when con-
trol relaxed. Nest destruction and/or
egg theft to prevent establishment from
1959 to 1965
Table n. Surviving young of 24 species out of nests, Regent’s Park, 1959-68
Minimum no. of Total Range of
pairs breeding young annual
or attempting fledged ‘crop’ Comments
Registered, accuracy 90% or over
Herring Gull
16
9
i-3
Success in four years from
1961
Stock Dove
5
3
0-3
Success in 1959 only
Great Spotted Woodpecker
3
2
O-I
Success in i960 and 1961
Swallow
1
4
1968 only
Carrion Crow
81
123
9-16
‘Crop’ increased annually
up to 1963
Jay
3i
3i
1-6
Coal Tit
9
13
2-5
Success annual from 1965
Wren
89
83
2-13
‘Crop’ six or less from
1962 to 1967
Mistle Thrush
90
132
7-20
‘Crop’ 13 or more from
1962
Blackcap
8
12
up to 4
Success in 1965, 1967 and
1968
Spotted Flycatcher
76
151
5-30
Pied Wagtail
8
6
up to 2
Juveniles still in care of
adults lost in i960 and
1962
Linnet
1
2
1968 only
Bullfinch
28
34
I-I I
24 young fledged from
1965 to 1968
Registered, accuracy untested
Tawny Owl
16
10
up to 3
At least five nest holes
found
Great Tit
98
178
5-3°
‘Crop’ ten or less until
1963, 1 15 in total from
1965 to 1968
Blue Tit
168
307
7-5°
‘Crop’ 32 or more from
1962, 1 19 in total from
1965 to 1968
Song Thrush
518
556
3°-9°
Peak ‘crops’ of 65-90 in
1962, 1965 and 1968
Blackbird
1,500
1,063
50-150
Productivity certainly
lower than that of Song
Thrush
Robin
178
156
5-23
Dunnock
512
212
1 1-26
Productivity undoubtedly
lowest of all passerines
Greenfinch
169
182
8-35
Only 38 from 1959 to
1962, peak ‘crop’ in 1968
Goldfinch
5i
106
5-i7
Only five in 1959 and
1965, otherwise ten or
more
138 98 3-16
Chaffinch
Birds of Regent's Park
465
BREEDING PRODUCTIVITY
Information on breeding productivity was amassed through the
registers kept of both pairs and fledged broods. Families of scarce
species and lakefowl were often watched over days and sometimes
weeks; the results of such observations are given in table 10 and the
first section of table 11. Breeding success was difficult to measure
but, since the factors involved in observation were constant, table 1 1
also demonstrates the results for the ten years.
Productivity appeared to be highest in the case of species that
other disciplines showed to be consistently gaining ground in the
park. The highest success rate of any passerine was that of the
Spotted Flycatcher, with each pair producing on average 1 .39 broods
of 1.9 young over the ten years. Second came the Goldfinch, third
the Blue Tit and fourth the Great Tit. All were favoured by special
factors, notably relative freedom from competition for nest sites
and (probably) food, and I consider that their advance was truly a
case of colonisation of previously undcrexploited habitats.
COMMENTS ON POPULATION DENSITY
The highest registered densities of 22-30 pairs per hectare (9-12
pairs per acre) were all in areas of undisturbed woodland with under-
growth, private gardens with thick hedges, and large shrubberies
near flower beds. The Baptist College sanctuary of 0.6 ha (1.5 acres)
attracted an astonishing concentration of breeding passerines, with
no fewer than 13 pairs of nine species attempting to breed in every
year. In 1964 at least 18 pairs of eleven species tried (though not
simultaneously). Clearly increased conservation would advance the
number of breeding birds, but not surprisingly the Department of
the Environment is most reluctant to reduce public access.
In terms of an overall population density of breeding birds, the
mapped register gave average minima for 1959-68 of 5.73 pairs per
hectare (2.32 pairs per acre) where nesting was possible, and of
3.29 pairs per hectare (1.33 pairs per acre) for the entire study
area. The summer ‘census’ results yielded overall summer presences
from 1962 to 1964 of 12.8 to 17.0 birds per hectare (5.18 to 6.88)
birds per acre). In the exceptional circumstances of 1965, the
summer presence was 21.3 birds per hectare (8.63 birds per acre).
(In comparing the two measures, the large non-breeding elements in
certain specific populations must not be forgotten.)
Finally, it may be noted that the 1965 summer presence closely
approached the highest density previously recorded in Inner London
of 21.7 birds per hectare (8.8 birds per acre) in the garden of
Buckingham Palace in 1962 (Cramp and Spencer 1964). This level
of density may be the maximum that a diversified bird community
466 Birds of Regent’s Park
can achieve in restricted urban habitat, and there is evidence from
both studies that it cannot be sustained.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Neither the development nor the completion of the study would have been possible
without the enthusiastic and painstaking support of R. C. Green. I am most
grateful to him. My thanks are also due to Professor E. H. Warmington and H.
Fossey, who made the most frequent contributions of several occasional observers;
W. G. Teagle, my first mentor in urban ornithology; and Stanley Cramp, who
never failed to encourage me. I must thank the Ministry of Works (now within
the Department of the Environment) for the privilege of being their Official
Observer for Regent’s Park, and gratefully acknowledge the help of various
ministry officials, notably W. H. Cole and S. M. Gault. L. A. Batten and K.
Williamson read one of several drafts and reminded me how difficult was the
study of bird populations. P. F. Bonham coped manfully with reducing the paper
to publishable length.
SUMMARY
The birds of Regent’s Park and Primrose Hill were intensively studied from 1 959
to 1968. During these ten years, about 100 species were recorded annually and
37 were successful in rearing young (23 annually). The breeding population
increased markedly during the first seven years but then fell back to near the
mean of about 800 pairs. Lasting growth was most obvious in insectivorous
passerines. The Greenfinch (for scientific names, see appendix 2) overtook the
Chaffinch as the dominant finch. Forty-one species occurred regularly or fre-
quently in winter, in which season notable increases were recorded in diving ducks,
gulls, Woodpigeon and several passerines. The increases in the wintering popula-
tions were not necessarily linked to the growth of the breeding populations, since
the complexity of status in most species was much greater than general distribu-
tional data and an earlier park study had implied. The most obvious divergence
from national population dynamics was the local population growth uninhibited by
the exceptionally severe winter of 1962/63. The total diurnal population of the
park varied by season from 2,800 to 6,800 birds and was highest in January and
September. Despite the limited general suitability of the area as a breeding habitat,
concentrations of as many as 30 pairs per hectare (12 pairs per acre) in especially
favourable cover were registered. As expected, further additions to the park
avifauna have occurred, but it is considered unlikely that the total population can
permanently expand beyond the mean indicated by the study without direct
human assistance in the future provision of safe habitat.
REFERENCES
Batten, L. A. 1971a. ‘Bird population changes on farmland and in woodland for
the years 1968-69’. Bird Study, 18: 1-8.
1971b. ‘An index of population changes for some relatively scarce species’.
Bird Study, 18: 130-136.
1972. ‘Breeding bird species diversity in relation to increasing urbanisation’.
Bird Study, 19: 157-166.
1973- ‘Population dynamics of suburban Blackbirds’. Bird Study, 20: 251-258.
Brown, E. P. 1963. ‘The bird life of Holland Park’. Lond. Bird Rep., 26: 60-87.
1964. ‘The bird life of Holland Park 1962-63’. Lond. Bird Rep., 28:69-78.
Cramp, S. 1949. ‘The birds of Kensington Gardens and Regent’s Park’. Lond. Bird
ReP; 13: 37-45-
Birds of Regent's Park 467
and Gooders, J. 1967. ‘The return of the House Martin’. Lond. Bird Rep.,
3** 93-98.
and Spencer, R. 1964, ‘The birds of the garden of Buckingham Palace’.
Proc. S. Lond. Ent. Nat. Hist. Soc. ( 1 963) : 40-45.
and Tomlins, A. D. 1966. ‘The birds of Inner London 1951-65’. Brit. Birds,
59: 209-233.
Goodwin, D. i960. ‘Comparative ecology of pigeons in inner London’. Brit. Birds,
53: 201-212.
Homes, R. C., et al. 1957. The Birds of the London Area since igoo. London.
>964. The Birds of the London Area. London. Revised edition.
Parslow, J. L. F. 1967-68. ‘Changes in status among breeding birds in Britain and
Ireland’. Brit. Birds, 60: 2-47, 97-123, 177-202, 261-285, 396-404, 493-508;
61 : 49-64, 241-255.
Wallace, D. I. M. 1961. ‘The birds of Regent’s Park and Primrose Hill, 1959’.
Lond. Bird Rep., 24: 81-107.
1964. ‘Herring Gulls breeding in Inner London’. Brit. Birds, 57: 80-81.
1972. ‘A profile of the winter bird community in Epping Forest’. Lond. Bird
Rep., 36: 75-83.
(ippendix 1. Study methods
bhe study was developed before the methodology of the Common Birds Census was standardised.
1 1961 a change was considered but this would have involved the partial loss of three years’
.-suits. Furthermore, song-post mapping in 1959 showed that in Regent’s Park the singing male
as an untrustworthy indicator of the size of the Chaffinch population actually attempting to
rreed or breeding, and that such confusion also affected other passerines. It was also impractical
1 track down the stationary males of the large populations of some species, for example Wood-
ijgeon and House Sparrow. Accordingly, the study continued with the aims and methods
1 ready in use. Notes on these follow.
AIM
Standard measurement
of specific or total popu-
lation, during winter
and breeding season
Standard measurement
of size of or changes in
specific or total breed-
ing population (s)
discipline
Maximum sample (termed
‘census’) of all species seen or
heard in various park sectors,
sequentially over several days
Lakefowl : log of pairs clearly
bonded or with nest or tend-
ing young
Other species ( except below ) :
mapped register of pairs on
territory — entire public cover
searched at least three times,
but private cover only once,
in each season up to 1965
Wood pigeon. Blackbird, Starling
and House Sparrow : some
mapped registration but
mainly localised counts of
birds obviously paired or
on nest or with young or
collecting food
ACCURACY
Never a complete census but,
except for skulking species, total
accuracy improving from 70% to
90% (assessed by both indepen-
dent counts and double-search-
ing in 1964)
High at 95% (assessed by inde-
pendent log)
Variable, from 95% for rare or
local species to 60% for com-
moner passerines ubiquitous in
public and private cover (assessed
by both independent searches
and double-searching)
Unknown but unlikely to be
under 50%; some interpolation
in 1959 and 1966-68 (not exceed-
ing 20%)
468
Birds of Regent's Park
C Measurement of breed-
ing productivity
D Definition of status
E Establishment of annual
lakefowl and gull cycle
and total population
trends
Register (partly mapped) of
fledged young, virtually simul-
taneous with B, containing A
in June
Repeated searches (mapped)
for all individuals at any
season; control on A and B
Counts in relevant habitats,
complementing A, B and C,
at least bimonthly up to 1 964
Variable, as B; never complete
for all species in any one year
High, reaching 100% for rare or
local species (much data from
migration studies)
High at 95-100% (assessed by
comparison with independent
series)
In 1962 R. C. Green joined me as a regular observer (and critic). Basic data were summarised
regularly on a two- to three-month cycle. Our co-operation was closest on B and C and up to
1966 some part of the study area was visited on four days a week or more. During the same
period, J. Newmark and members of the XYZ Club undertook the independent series of lake-
fowl counts and H. Fossey contributed many counts from private cover. In August 1965, when
I left London, RCG took over the disciplines and was helped in turn by A. M. Forsyth and R. H.
Kettle. In 1968 the last observer used the Common Birds Census methods in the south-east of
the park and found there notably higher numbers of certain male passerines than those indicated
by the pair figures given by RCG in his annual report and this paper. Inevitably this raises
doubts on the validity of the methods described above, at least in 1968, but the study never
pretended to total precision; I therefore accept the data for 1966-68 as sufficiently comparable
with those for 1959-65 to allow the interpretation placed upon it in this paper. If the discipline
of B did fall short of the Common Birds Census equivalent in accuracy, its practice was constant
and its frequency unparalleled.
Appendix 2. Scientific names of bird species in the text and tables
Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus
Grey Heron Ardea cinerea
Mallard Anas platyrhynchos
Tufted Duck Ay thy a fuligula
Pochard Aythya ferina
Canada Goose Branta canadensis
Mute Swan Cygnus olor
Moorhen Gallinula chloropus
Coot Ftilica atra
Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus fuscus
Herring Gull Larus argentatus
Common Gull Larus canus
Stock Dove Columba oenas
Feral pigeon Columba livia
Woodpigeon Columba palumbus
Tawny Owl Strix aluco
Swift Apus apus
Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos
major
Swallow Hirundo rustica
House Martin Delichon urbica
Carrion Crow Corvus corone
Magpie Pica pica
D. I. M. Wallace, g Woodhill Rise,
Jay Garrulus glandarius
Great Tit Parus major
Blue Tit Parus caeruleus
Coal Tit Parus ater
Wren Troglodytes troglodytes
Mistle Thrush Turdus viscivorus
Song Thrush Turdus philomelos
Redwing Turdus iliacus
Blackbird Turdus merula
Robin Erilhacus rubecula
Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla
Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus
Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata
Dunnock Prunella modularis
Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba
Starling Sturnus vulgaris
Greenfinch Carduelis chloris
Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis
Linnet Acanthis cannabina
Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula
Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs
House Sparrow Passer domesticus
Heads Lane, Hessle, Hull hu i 3 orz
Obituaries
Matthew Fontaine Maury Meiklejohn, MA
(i9i3-i974)
Plate 67
Professor M. F. M. Meiklejohn died in a Glasgow hospital on 14th
May 1974, after a short illness. Maury Meiklejohn was of Scottish
parentage and ancestry, from a scholastic family noted for intellec-
tual ability. His grandfather, J. M. D. Meiklejohn, was professor of
education at St Andrew’s University and author of a number of
school textbooks; he founded the publishing firm of Meiklejohn &
Son in order to have his textbooks published on more favourable
terms than he could otherwise obtain. Professor J. M. D. Meiklejohn
was a great friend of Matthew Fontaine Maury, the American Naval
oceanographer: a son (Maury Meiklejohn’s uncle) was called after
him and from him Maury inherited his Christian names. (Inciden-
tally, the family was not related to Colonel R. F. Meiklejohn, the
noted ornithologist and collector, whose widow Maury knew.)
Arnold Hilary Meiklejohn, the ‘Son’ of Meiklejohn & Son,
came to London in 1904 to run the family business, but moved
to Harpcnden in 1907 as it was in those days a very pleasant rural
village with a good train service to London. Here the family was
born. A. H. Meiklejohn was a good ornithologist and an egg-
collector at a time when this was a reasonable pastime. He was an
occasional contributor to British Birds and made excursions as far
afield as Orkney, Caithness and Sutherland, where, according to
Maury, he pinched the Red-throated Diver’s eggs on Handa but
failed to go down the cliffs to get Guillemots’ eggs because the boat-
man who was supposed to hold the rope got drunk. From this home
background Maury’s interest in birds began.
In July 1927 a note on a Song Thrush breeding in an old Black-
bird’s nest was published in British Birds by M. F. M. Meiklejohn —
‘I beat James Fisher on this; he published his first note in British
Birds at the age of 15, I was 13. I forget what it was, but you can
look it up.’
Maury Meiklejohn was schooled at Gresham’s School, Holt,
Norfolk, the jumping-off place of many a good naturalist. Holt is
only 6 km from Gley, and the inland heaths and the woods near the
school were also good for birds. Maury became very fond of this
part of Norfolk; his interests and associations there became life-long,
for he visited Cley and Blakeney two or three times every year — for
the last time in April 1974. But at the same time were laid the founda-
469
470 Matthew Fontaine Maury Meiklejohn (1913-1974)
tions of his profound knowledge of literature and language, and one
of his proudest possessions was a school prize for natural history —
he chose The Oxford Book of Italian Verse!
An open scholarship in modern languages to Oriel College,
Oxford, was followed by graduation with first-class honours in
French and German in 1934 and a Harmsworth scholarship as a
post-graduate student to Merton College in 1935. At this time
Maury was greatly influenced as regards ornithology by the work
of W. B. Alexander and B. W. Tucker, whom he considered to be the
pioneer figures in bird identification in Britain. Oxford in the 1930’s
was a highly stimulating place ornithologically and among his fellow
undergraduates were James Fisher, Dick Cornwallis, and two sub-
sequent editors of The Ibis, James Monk and Hugh Elliott. At the
same time, he walked about the country a great deal visiting places
like Wytham Woods and Otmoor while continuing his association
with Cley and a new-found one on the Isle of May.
In 1937 Maury was appointed lecturer in Italian and Old
French at Cape Town University, where he remained until he
joined the South African Army in 1941. At Cape Town he established
contact with South African ornithologists, notably Dr G. J. Broek-
huysen, with whom he published papers in The Ibis and The Ostrich
on Palearctic migrants in the Cape Province. He visited what was
then Tanganyika where his old friend Hugh Elliott (now Sir Hugh)
was district commissioner, and became aquainted with some of the
tropical African birds. He did not neglect other opportunities,
however, and learned enough Afrikaans to stand him in good stead
when he later began his military service in the Transvaal. His next
posting was to Nairobi where he spent about a year with the intelli-
gence unit at General Wavell’s HQ for the Abyssinian campaign,
thereafter moving first to Cairo, then to Palestine — ‘While I was in
Palestine I got a day’s leave to see my thousandth bird. It was Passer
moabiticus, . After demobilisation he worked for the British Council
in Tehran for a year, characteristically adding Persian and
Romanian to his repertoire and writing a paper for The Ibis on the
birds of Tehran and the Alborz (Elburz) Mountains.
In 1941 Maury returned to Britain as head of the Italian Depart-
ment of Leeds University and began to revisit his old familiar
haunts in Norfolk and the Isle of May, extending his birding ground
elsewhere, especially to Islay and Holy Island ‘where Dr Bannerman
once saved my life. . . It was a bitter October day. . . waiting for the
tide to go down, when Dr Bannerman came along and do you know
what he produced from the boot of his car — a dram !’ In 1949, much
to Scotland’s good fortune, Meiklejohn was elected Stevenson
Professor of Italian at Glasgow University. The west of Scotland has
the largest group of schools teaching Italian in the United Kingdom,
Plate 64. Immature Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea, Hampshire, July 1974
{fdiotos : J. B. and S. Bottomlev ): vigorous foot-paddling (above) was frequently
observed as the bird moved about feeding in shallow muddy water 1 pages 477-
478). This individual stayed in Christchurch Harbour for at least seven weeks
Plate 65. Model of outspread rectrices of Woodcock Scolopax rusticola {photo:
Collingwood Ingram), showing the gleaming white ventral surfaces of the feather
tips (pages 475-476). Below, day-old Cuckoo Cuculus canorus in nest of Swallows
Hirundo rustica, Somerset, June 1951 {photo: G. H. E. Young) (page 478)
j ► «
Plate 66. Regent’s Park and (beyond) Primrose Hill. London, excluding the
south-west and south-east corners and eastern edge {photo: Aerofilms). Note the
predominance of greensward and the full leaf canopy of summer. Habitats impor-
tant to the breeding population during the ten-year study (pages 449-468) were
the lake islands (left of centre), the heavily wooded and little-disturbed area
between the lake and Primrose Hill containing the passerine sanctuary, and the
set-piece cover of Queen Mary’s Garden (circle in centre). Commensal species
exploited particularly the triangle of the zoo (below Primrose Hill), and winter
visitors were often concentrated on the games pitches (between lake and zoo)
Plate 67. Matthew Fontaine Maury Meiklejohn (1913-1974)
(photo: Glasgow Herald)
47 1
Matthew Fontaine Maury Meiklejohn (19 13-1974)
providing the foundations upon which in his 25 years Professor
Meiklejohn built up the largest Department of Italian in any
British University. He was universally acknowledged as an out-
standing teacher and an unforgettable lecturer, well organised,
amusing where necessary and with an astounding knowledge of
literature and language — Latin, Greek, Italian, French, Provencal,
Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, German, Persian, Arabic and, of
course, English.
In his particular academic field he was an authority on Dante,
and as a side-line produced a scholarly treatise on the ‘Birds of
Dante’ which was published in Annals of Science. Latterly he became
interested in the language and people of Sardinia, which he visited
frecpiently, and even taught Sardinian at evening classes in Glasgow.
The climax of his academic career came in 1964 when he was
awarded the Italian decoration ‘cavaliere della solid arieta
italiana’ by the President of Italy for his services to Italian studies
in the United Kingdom.
The Scottish Ornithologists’ Club had been in abeyance during
the war years: Maury joined the revived club when he came to
Glasgow and the following year was elected to the Council. In i960
he became President. The Scottish Naturalist too was revived after
the war, but following a few successful years its light began to flicker
and it became apparent to the SOC Council that there might soon
be no local outlet for Scottish bird records and papers. Scottish Birds
was launched with Maury Meiklejohn as the first editor, a post
which he relinquished three years later when he began to realise
that there were limits to the amount of work that even he could
undertake, but not before he had established the journal firmly and
successfully. He found time somehow to write a weekly article,
identified by his initials, for the Glasgow Herald , usually on subjects
related to nature and often amusing. He had actually contributed a
thousand of these before he died.
On his complete disregard for personal appearance, his tremen-
dous knowledge of birds, especially of fine points in identification,
his humorous speeches and writings, it is unnecessary to comment.
He wras a shy, gentle and immeasurably generous character, but
hated inaccuracy and would castigate in no uncertain terms anyone
he regarded as bogus or suspected of fraudulent representation.
My own association with Maury was mainly on the SOC Council,
w'here I succeeded him as President, and at the annual conferences.
In the chair at Council meetings he conducted the business firmly
but with quiet humour. I well remember on one occasion when,
following a lengthy discussion of some matter on reorganisation —
it may have been the proposed formation of the Council for Nature —
the summing up from the chair was brief: 'This seems to me to be a
472 Matthew Fontaine Maury Meiklejohn (ig ig- igy f)
lot of pure bureaucratic guff’ ; and we moved to the next item on the
agenda.
I last saw him at the 1973 Conference. He seemed rather poor
physically but was in good humour and appeared to enjoy the dinner.
Obviously he was just as much at home with Scots verse as with any
other, for he said to me afterwards that his favourite early Scots poem
was ‘The Ballad of Kind Kittock’, who found that ‘The ale of
Heaven was soor’. When we were breaking up next afternoon I said
‘Cheerio’ to Maury and with a chuckle he replied ‘Remember, the
ale of Heaven is soor’. I do hope that he was wrong that time.
British ornithology is going to miss Maury Meiklejohn greatly and
the SOC will never be quite the same again. Ian D. Pennie
Ludwig Koch, MBE (1881-1974)
Dr Ludwig Koch, mbe, died on 4th May 1974, at the age of 92.
Ludwig, as he was affectionately called by most people, had no
claims to scientific ornithology but was the European pioneer of the
recording of wild birds in the field. He collaborated with a number
of ornithologists to produce such works as Der Schrei der Steppe
[Sounds of Safari ] (about Africa) in 1933; Der Wald Erschallt [The
Wood Resounds ] in 1934, with Lutz Heck; and Gefiederte Meistersanger
[Feathered Mas ter singers] in 1935, with Oscar Heinroth (introduction
by Hermann Goering). After his arrival in Britain he worked with
E. M. Nicholson to produce Songs of Wild Birds in 1936 and More
Songs of Wild Birds a year later; and with Julian Huxley to publish
Animal Language in 1938. After the war he produced Oiseaux Chanteurs
de Laeken [ The Song Birds of Laeken (Belgium)] in 1952. All these works
were books accompanied by gramophone records. His recordings
were the first to be made of wild birds in Africa and on the European
continent; in Britain his 1936 and 1937 recordings were preceded
only by efforts on a much smaller scale than his own which were
made in 1900 and 1926 or 1927. His autobiography Memoirs of a
Bird Man was published in 1955.
His 1889 recording on a wax cylinder of the song of a caged Com-
mon or White-rumped Shama is believed to be the earliest extant
recording of bird voice. He made ‘a good number of open-air
recordings in field, garden and woodland’ (the autobiography,
p. 16), not, apparently, specifically of birds, in 1906. These were, of
course, non-electric, and were registered on wax disc. Despite a
claim to the contrary that he once made verbally to me (see Brit.
Birds, special supplement to vol. 57, p. 1), these recordings did not
473
Ludwig Koch ( i88i-igy4 )
appear on a commercial disc, as the autobiography in fact confirms.
Interestingly, his first published bird voice recordings were of species
recorded in what was then Tanganyika in 1929, though he appears
to have started recording European wild birds in 1927.
A Jewish refugee from Nazi Germany, Ludwig arrived in Britain
in 1936. He was on the radio the next year and on television in 1938!
Following a career in Germany as a child violinist, concert singer
and musical impresario, Ludwig became in Britain an impresario
for the birds and carved for himself a remarkable career as a broad-
caster. Ludwig Koch’s name is on the roll of the truly great pioneers
of British radio along with A. J. Allen, Walford Davies, Mr Middle-
ton and the original disc-jockey Christopher Stone. He originated
or took part in about 160 broadcasts between March 1945 and
February 1958, a peak thirteen years in his career.
In his lifetime a whole new science and art grew up, and a
thousand disciples throughout the world now mourn the passing of
the ‘master of nature’s music’. With his recordings Ludwig invented
a new kind of broadcast that today we take for granted. He was
cartooned and burlesqued and imitated on the grand scale, and he
loved every caricature. To have worked with Ludwig Koch is a
claim many of us will long be proud to make. His sheer enthusiasm,
to say nothing of his attractively fractured English, endeared him
to millions, and no doubt helped to convert thousands to bird-
watching.
Ludwig Koch was the most unforgettable character I ever met.
A warm-hearted, friendly, lovable man with an impish sense of
humour. His capacity for overtime, his obsessive single-mindedness,
and his formidable concentration were more than most of us could
keep up with. Like the Ancient Mariner, he had an uncanny power
of bending to his purpose all sorts of people who mistakenly
thought that they were about to do something quite different.
Ludwig was not the simplest of men to work with, as E. M. Nichol-
son recalled in his address at the thanksgiving service: ‘He preferred
the challenge of the unknown and the almost unattainable to follow-
ing along familiar paths. His Sancho Panzas in the heavy recording
van had to put up with the artistic temperament in its most sublime
form. At times the humble van would be transformed into something
like a roving opera house, with the Prima Donna stalking up and
down it exuding temperament and despair, while the technicians,
first cowering in a corner, would gradually revolt and threaten
to withdraw themselves and their labour. It was then that urgent
telephone calls had to be made from the most unlikely spots to the
highest quarters before sweet reason again prevailed and the
harmony of the birds singing away outside was once more matched
within the van’.
474
Ludwig Koch ( 1881-igy^. )
A photograph of Ludwig recording Swallows in Somerset in his
80th year appeared in the British Birds special supplement referred to
above, as did full details of all his published Palearctic recordings.
Much of his unpublished collection is held by the BBC and a great
quantity of recorded material has been bequeathed to the British
Library of Wildlife Sounds at the British Institute for Recorded
Sound. Jeffery Boswall
Notes
Kestrel taking prey from Short-eared Owl On 20th January
1974, Mrs M. Perkins and I watched a Short-eared Owl Asio Jlammeus
hunting in the usual manner over rough grass on Salisbury Plain,
Wiltshire. It dropped into the grass, rose with a small mammal in its
talons and flew to a passing bay beside a metalled road. Before I
could reach the spot, a Kestrel Falco tinnunculus flew swiftly in the
same direction and landed by the owl. There was a flurry and the
Kestrel took off, carrying something in its claws. When we reached
the owl it was still on the ground and appeared to be searching for
its lost prey, taking quick running steps and peering round in a
bewildered manner. It eventually hopped on to a lump of mud where
it shook its plumage and took to the air. We followed in the car
and watched it quartering a small plantation of very young conifers
which was fenced in. The Kestrel was perched on one of the fence
posts. When the owl alighted on another post the Kestrel flew over
it and the owl immediately rose and pursued the falcon, both birds
rising in the air together. The owl forced the Kestrel to the ground,
striking at it with its talons; the Kestrel threw itself on its back
and screamed several times before the owl flew away. The Kestrel
remained lying on the ground for about half a minute before flying
to a nearby tree. Later I was able to drive very close to the owl,
which was perched on another post, and noticed that its ear-tufts
were fully raised while it watched a Kestrel flying overhead.
On 10th March I again visited the area. At approximately 16.30
hours a Short-eared Owl appeared hunting over the same coarse
grass. A Kestrel was once more in the vicinity. The owl soon killed
a small passerine, which it carried off. Almost immediately a female
Kestrel flew at the owl and attempted to snatch the prey from its
claws; a second Kestrel arrived and the two birds harried the owl
continuously while it jinked and side-slipped to avoid their attacks,
gaining height all the time. I watched the three birds through
Notes
475
8.5 X 40 binoculars until they appeared no larger than Skylarks,
having climbed so high as to be almost invisible to the naked eye.
One Kestrel lost interest and flew away, but the other tried
repeatedly to get above the owl and dive on it. The owl retained its
prey, however, and eventually the other Kestrel broke off the
encounter by going into a shallow dive. The owl continued to wheel
round for some minutes, losing height, and could be seen bringing
its feet forward, in the manner of a Hobby F. subbuteo, to peck at the
prey. Whether this was to prevent the Kestrels from attacking again
should it land one cannot say, but it is most unusual for an owl to
feed on the wing. Gradually it lost more height and was lost to sight
behind a belt of conifers. About a kilometre away two more Short-
eared Owls were hunting and again another Kestrel chased one of
them.
Piracy by Kestrels has been recorded in Scotland on several
occasions (Brit. Birds, 64: 317-318, 543; 66: 227-228).
Geoffrey L. Boyle
7 Marsh Road, Hilperton Marsh, Trowbridge, Wiltshire
Possible functions of the tail spots in the Woodcock Those
who have handled Woodcock Scolopax msticola for most of their lives
often remain unaware that the glossy white spots on the tips of
the tail feathers are white on only one side. On the dorsal surface
these spots are brownish-grey, a hue which harmonises perfectly
with the rest of the bird’s beautifully camouflaged plumage. On the
ventral side they are pure white and of a glistening appearance
(plate 65a). Under a strong magnifying glass the glistening eAect is
shown to be due to the smooth, enamel-like texture of the under-
surface of the shafts of the closely crowded, forward-pointing barbs.
On their upper surfaces these barbs are not white but brownish-grey
and are furnished along their entire length with very short, straight
barbules of the same colour. It is these barbules which impart a soft
velvety feeling to that part of the feather’s surface.
The glossiness and intense whiteness of the tail spots have obviously
been evolved to reflect even the faintest glimmer of light. But that,
of course, they can do only after the bird has rendered them visible
by erecting its tail and spreading out its rectrices.
There must arise occasions in the life of such a beautifully
camouflaged bird as the Woodcock (especially as it must derive
further concealment from its nocturnal and crepuscular habits)
when its virtual invisibility is neither necessary nor desirable:
for example, during the male’s courtship display on the ground. In
The Handbook (4: 187) the findings of the few ornithologists who
have observed this display are epitomised as follows: ‘male struts
round female with drooping wings, raised and spread tail and
Notes
476
feathers of head and neck puffed out’. The effulgence of the strik-
ingly conspicuous tail spots, when they are deliberately flaunted in
front of the female, must greatly enhance the effectiveness of the
bird’s nuptial display.
As the white spots occur also in the plumage of the female,
it is evident that they must also serve the species in some other way.
Since a female Woodcock, when she attempts by injury-feigning to
lure a potential predator away from her nest or nestlings, raises
her tail and spreads out her rectrices, we may safely assume that
the conspicuousness of the white tail spots, thus fully exposed to
view, affords her valuable assistance by immediately attracting the
predator’s attention.
Besides the relatively large spots on the tips of the Woodcock’s
rectrices, some of the bird’s undertail-coverts also have smaller,
terminal white spots. These, unlike those on the rectrices, are
white on both sides of the feather, a distinction which no doubt
renders them visible from a greater number of angles. They
apparently do not play an important part in any ritual display but,
since Woodcock have been observed walking about with ‘their tail
cocked up like a crake’s’ (which would, of course, automatically
expose the undertail-coverts to view), we may safely conclude that
one of their functions is to keep the birds visually in touch with
one another. R. Wagstaffe (in litt.), of the Liverpool Museums,
was reliably informed of a Woodcock which, whenever it was
seen leading its chicks, as for instance across an open ride, always
carried its tail in an erect position. Collingwood Ingram
The Grange, Benenden, Kent TN17 4DN
We have found very few references to this subject and only one
which appears to be directly relevant, by T. L. Borodulina and
A. N. Formozov (1967, Byull. Mask. Obshch. Ispyt. Prir. Otd. biol., 72:
2 7-3 x ) . An English summary headed ‘About signal spots of feathering
of birds and peculiarity of woodcock tail feathers’ reads as follows:
‘Distinctive “lighting” in deep twilight of white band at the wood-
cock tail gives rise to the peculiar macro- and microstructures of its
tail feathers. White band at the top represents the system of con-
cave-convex mirrors, gathering and focusing light, i.e. the system
of reflectors. Their walls reflect the light in similarity with the
pearl screen. Systems of these reflectors, generated by all the tail
feathers at its vertical position provides heightened visibility of white
bands even in the twilight. Distinctive construction of the tail
feathers playing special role in the courtship is peculiar to many of
the Scolopacinae species ( Capella gallinago, C. stenura, C. megala,
C. solitaria and others). Thus the woodcock is not an exception,
although belongs to the particular genus.’ Eds
Notes
477
Feeding association between Marsh Sandpiper and dabbling
ducks On 27th September 1972, at a water-hole in Nairobi
National Park, Kenya, I saw a Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis
associating with two Hottentot Teal Anas holtentata. The ducks fed
vigorously by typical dabbling for some 30 minutes and, during this
time, the sandpiper kept close to them, even swimming at times,
presumably finding aquatic organisms more easily as a result of the
disturbance caused by the ducks’ activities. When the ducks went
to a small mud bar to preen and doze the sandpiper carried on
feeding by itself, but, when they resumed feeding, it immediately
flew over to rejoin them, thereby clearly showing the deliberate
nature of its behaviour. On 21st July 1973, at a different water-hole
in the Park, I saw another Marsh Sandpiper associating in a similar
way with four Red-billed Ducks A. erythrorhynchos . These observations
suggest that this may be fairly regular behaviour in the Marsh
Sandpiper. J. F. Reynolds
P.0. Box 40584, Nairobi, Kenya
Ross’s Gull in Hampshire foot-paddling to disturb orga-
nisms In regard to my note concerning a Bonaparte’s Gull Lams
Philadelphia foot-paddling to disturb organisms (Brit. Birds, 66: 447),
it may also be of interest to record that on 1 ith July 1974, at Stanpit
Marsh, Christchurch, Hampshire, I observed rather similar
behaviour involving an immature Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea
(plate 64). While under observation for over two hours, the bird
was mainly feeding from very soft mud which, in patches, was
sparsely covered by sea-lettuce Ulva lactuca. Alternate and very
rapid foot movements in the soft mud apparently brought edible
items to the surface, and these were immediately swallowed. Its
foot movements were even more rapid than those of many Black-
headed Gulls L. ridibundus nearby which were also obtaining food in
this way. The Ross’s Gull was frequently aggressive towards its
larger companions, rushing at them with head lowered and bill
partly open, its bright vermilion gape very conspicuous; occasionally
its weak calls were faintly discernible over other continuous back-
ground noises. J. Kist also recorded aggressive behaviour of this
nature in an adult Ross’s Gull which remained for six weeks at
Vlieland in the Netherlands during June and July 1958 (Brit. Birds,
52: 422-424, plates 66-69), but he did not mention foot-pad-
dling. Bernard King
Gull Cry, Q Park Road, Neivlyn, Cornwall
We are also grateful to J. Cantelo and P. A. Gregory, who have
published an observation of foot-paddling in a Sabine’s Gull L.
sabini (Brit. Birds, 64: 76-77), for a similar note on foot-paddling
Notes
478
by the Hampshire Ross’s Gull, which also mentions that, since swim-
ming seems to have been rarely recorded in this species, it is of
interest that they saw the bird once alight on shallow water and
swim with apparent ease.
Mr King has drawn our attention to a paper by Dr P. A. Buckley
on foot-paddling in American Gulls (1966, Z. Tierpsychol., 23: 395-
402), namely Laughing L. atricilla, California L. calif ornicus, Ring-
billed L. delawarensis and Bonaparte’s, which discussed its possible
function and stimulation and also reviewed records of this be-
haviour in European gulls. Eds
Cuckoo parasitising Swallow The editorial comment on the note
by R. H. Heath (Brit. Birds , 66: 279-280) mentions the paucity of
records during the 20th century concerning the parasitisation of the
Swallow Hirundo rustica by the Cuckoo Cuculus canorus. In early June
1951 I called on a farmer at Muchelney, Somerset, who reported
that he had seen a Cuckoo fly out of a brick shed on several after-
noons during the previous few days. I visited the farm again on 18th
June and saw a Swallow’s nest on one of the beams supporting the
roof. The farmer and I climbed the roof and removed some tiles in
order to obtain a clear view, for there was little light inside the shed
and only about 1 5 cm between the nest and the under-surface of the
tiles. The beam sloped gently upwards. The nest contained three
Swallow eggs and a very active, recently hatched chick (plate 65b).
I watched for about ten minutes while the chick struggled to get an
egg upon its back in order to eject it over the side of the nest. It was
unsuccessful and we replaced the tiles and withdrew. Three days
later there was evidence of broken eggshells on the floor below the
nest, which then contained only the one chick. About three weeks
later the fledged Cuckoo was sitting on the outside of the roof
being fed by the Swallows. I twice saw a pair of Dunnocks Prunella
modularis attempt to appease its incessant hunger cries by giving
it food intended for its own young in a nest 45 metres away. Pied
Wagtails Motacilla alba were nesting in the farm buildings; while
Reed Warblers Acrocephalus scirpaceus and Sedge Warblers A. schoeno-
baenus are parasitised by Cuckoos on the adjoining levels.
G. H. E. Young
Meadows, Broadway, Ilminster, Somerset
Great Tit commencing clutch before lining nest The note by
R. H. Kettle on a Blue Tit Parus caeruleus laying an egg on the bare
floor of a nestbox (Brit. Birds, 67: 78-79) prompts me to record the
following. In April 1948, at Hall Green, Birmingham, a pair of
Great Tits P. major were visiting a nestbox in a tree very near to the
nest of a Blackbird Turdus merula which contained eggs. The female
Notes
479
Blackbird was very aggressive and drove away the Great Tits
repeatedly. On 15th April a few pieces of grass were lying on the
floor of the box. When it was next examined, on 1 8th, a single egg
lay in one corner of the box and a pile of moss in another. By 19th a
rough cup had been formed in which lay two eggs. Nest-building
was more or less complete by 24th April. Nine eggs were eventually
laid, two disappearing during incubation. The female sat from 28th
April until 14th May, thereafter visiting the nest only occasionally.
The eggs were all infertile. At the time the failure to accumulate
nest materials before laying was attributed to interference from the
Blackbirds. D. Warden
Centaur , Ham Lane , Bishop Sutton, Bristol bsi8 4TZ
Reviews
The Cairngorms. Their Natural History and Scenery. By
Desmond Nethersole-Thompson and Adam Watson. Collins,
London, 1974. 286 pages; 7 colour and 36 black-and-white
photographs; 17 maps and text-figures. £3.50.
Everything about the Cairngorms is massive — the greatest extent of
ground over 900 metres in Britain, the biggest tourist developments
in the Highlands and a huge land-management problem for the
future. Hundreds of thousands of people come every year to enjoy
them and most must be attracted by their wildlife even if they have
come for the scenery, the skiing, fishing or shooting, or the luxury
hotels with their bowling alleys and skating rinks. Here one comes
face to face with the dilemma of people in danger of destroying what
they enjoy. I believe that this dilemma can be resolved only if as
many people as possible come to understand something about the
natural environment and thus to care about its future. This book
can play an important part in increasing this understanding and
awareness. The authors’ first words are ‘We love the Cairngorms’,
and their enthusiasm and great personal knowledge of the area
make the book exhilarating and enjoyable to read; there can be
few books of this kind that contain so much original observation by
the authors, some of which is published here for the first time. This
applies particularly to four long chapters on the birds of the main
Cairngorm habitats which readers of British Birds will find especially
interesting for the descriptions of the breeding biology of the more
important species. There are also chapters on The Human History,
Fish Amphibia and Reptiles, Sport, Conservation, and The Future.
The chapter on Conservation seems wrongly titled as it is con-
cerned solely with present and future pressures on the area, the
authors’ proposals for the way in which the Cairngorms should be
managed being put in the short chapter on The Future. Too often
Reviews
480
those pleading the cause of conservation are branded as being
against everything and a casual reader of this book could have this
impression confirmed. Their proposals for the future, however, seem
realistic and positive, stressing the urgent need for an overall plan
for the management of the whole area from Drumochter to Glen
Tanar and for an efficient and effective body to administer such a
plan with powers ‘to conserve and develop, strictly in that order’. A
substantial part of the Cairngorms should be left inviolate as one
of the few real wilderness areas in Britain with a unique scientific
importance, and everyone, including naturalists, would have to
accept some control over his activities. The authors have not tried
to write on subjects about which they are not experts. There is an
excellent chapter by Derek Ratcliffe on The Vegetation and
appendices include contributions by specialists on Geology, Land-
forms, Soils, Climate, and Invertebrates. In this it differs from most
other regional books, with advantage, and might be described as a
handbook to the Cairngorms. I recommend it as essential reading
for any naturalist visiting the area, desirable reading for all visitors
and fascinating to anyone interested in the natural history and
future of our native uplands. David Lea
Cranes of the World. By Lawrence Walkinshaw. Winchester
Press, New York, 1973. vii -f 370 pages, including 128 black-
and-white and 10 colour photographs. Obtainable from
George Prior Associated Publishers Ltd, Rugby Chambers,
2 Rugby Street, London WCiN 3QU. £12.75.
Owls of the World. Edited by John A. Burton. Peter Lowe,
London, 1973. 216 pages, including 101 colour photographs,
many original paintings and maps. £5.95.
There seems to be a growing demand for books covering distinctive
groups of birds on a world basis. These latest two, despite their
similar titles, differ widely in approach. Both give the same basic
information — on classification, fossils and, for each species, plumages
and moult, breeding behaviour, voice, distribution and movements.
But here the resemblance ends. Lawrence Walkinshaw is an
enthusiastic amateur who has travelled widely for many years in
search of cranes, and has managed to see all but one of the 1 5 species
of this fascinating and seriously threatened group in the wild. The
style is discursive, with long accounts of his field experiences and
extensive verbatim extracts from other authorities. His species
accounts range from twelve pages for the lesser-known species to
60 for his lifelong favourite, the Sandhill Crane. He eschews any
standard order of presentation, and although he gives a wealth of
material it is not always readily accessible. He has made a survey
of the literature, giving full references, and has met or corresponded
Reviews
481
with many fellow enthusiasts throughout the world. Nevertheless, in
some instances, such as the Demoiselle Crane in Europe and North
Africa, his account fails to reflect adequately the present parlous
position. The book is fully illustrated with many photographs
whose quality often merits much better reproduction but, rather
strangely, with no distribution maps. A treasure-house for the crane
enthusiast, though the general reader may find both the price and
the 370 large pages rather daunting.
A team of 14 professional zoologists, under the editorship of
John A. Burton, offers, in contrast, a concise and superbly produced
survey of the much larger number of owls of the world, another
group which has long fascinated and awed mankind. The species
accounts are limited to some 140 pages in all, to cover some 130
species in six main groups. The basic data are given, but without
detailed references, and it is made clear that for a large number of
species information on many aspects (indeed, in some cases almost
all) is simply not available. Every species is illustrated either by
coloured photographs or by original, rather stylised paintings by
John Rignall, and there are admirably clear distribution maps.
There are also a number of interesting general chapters on owls and
men, origins, anatomy, conservation, pellets, and voice. The
specialist will want more, but for most readers this is a well-planned
and visually attractive survey. Stanley Cramp
Scarce Migrant Birds in Britain and Ireland. By J. T. R.
Sharrock. T. and A. D. Poyser, Berkhamsted, 1974. *91 pages;
12 black-and-white plates; 24 vignettes; 130 maps and histo-
grams. £3.80.
Between the common and the rare migrants are the scarce ones.
This book discusses and illustrates the geographical and temporal
distribution and the probable origins of 24 species and two
groups of such birds from 1958 to 1967. Essentially it reproduces
the outstanding series of papers published by Dr Sharrock in this
journal from 1969 to 1973. Since they deserve fuller and wider
study, their simultaneous publication in a handsome slim volume is
welcomed in these sad days of so few statements on migration.
In terms of content little is added to that already published. An
introduction assisting the general reader to understand the specific
treatment and the general context of the study would have had
much more merit if some of the fundamental theories of migration
had been briefly explained. However, the new chapter prefaces,
containing descriptive notes on species that follow, will be helpful,
particularly as they are backed up by some well-chosen photo-
graphs. These include some notable Fair Isle captures from Roy
Dennis; and, incidentally, those featuring Sabine’s Gull, Aquatic,
Reviews
482
Greenish and Arctic Warblers, Richard’s Pipit and Scarlet Rose-
finch are worth pages of field guide text. A marvellously dainty
series of vignettes by Peter Grant competes well with the photo-
graphs. Sadly, in the review copy the printed result suggests over-
reduction from the original drawings. Most birds appear to be in
deep shadow. Even so, the illustrations combine to refresh the
whole essay.
One thing disappoints. Dr Sharrock has not taken his rare second
chance to write a fuller and updated summary. It is nearly seven
years since the end of his study period and it is a shame that at the
very least he did not critically review the comments in the annual
reports of the Rarities Committee on the more recent status of his
subject species. This, however, is only a fault of omission. His
industry is still something to marvel at, and his book is a necessary
addition to all working ornithological libraries in Europe.
D. I. M. Wallace
Urvogel. By Stephan Burkhard. Die Neue Brehm-Biicherei,
A. Ziemsen Verlag, Wittenberg Luther stadt, East Germany,
1974. 167 pages; 88 photographs, reconstructions, line-
drawings, diagrams and maps. 13.90 M.
In this slim volume Dr Burkhard has brought together all the avail-
able information on Archaeopteryx and its importance as a link
between birds and reptiles. The text is profusely illustrated, mostly
with plates and line-drawings from earlier works on the subject, but
some of the line-drawings have reproduced rather poorly. The
author lists and illustrates all but the last of the specimens, of which
there are now five skeletal remains in varying degrees of complete-
ness, together with the original feather. In reviewing the taxonomy
he favours recognising two species in different genera. This may
be correct, but in view of the additional material and the presence
of errors in earlier works the characters used for separation are due
for reappraisal.
The first half is taken up with a bone-by-bone consideration of
the anatomy. It is apparent that the author has relied almost
entirely on published descriptions and that this is a summary of
published knowledge and not an original re-examination. The latter
half of the book is concerned with an examination of the Archae-
opterygidae in relation to the evolution of birds from reptiles,
together with such information as is available on the climate and
habitat at the period in which these forms lived. What is very
apparent is the way in which the overall structure of Archaeopteryx
is astonishingly similar to that of the small, bipedal and cursorial
dinosaurs. There is every reason to assume that it ran swiftly
before it could fly, but no evidence that it climbed trees. Pre-
Reviews
483
sumably a running and leaping creature could have run up and
launched itself from rocks, shrubs or similar low eminences. The
author is in favour of a cursorial origin; but it is interesting to
look at the illustrated array of earlier reconstructions, obsessed,
in spite of the lack of morphological evidence, with the creation of
a mythical, long-bodied, gliding pro-avian ancestor and with the
need for Archaeopteryx to clamber in trees using its forelimbs.
This book forms a valuable summary of our knowledge of the
first birds, and those with a poor grasp of the language but
interested in the structure and evolution of birds might find the
many illustrations and other data of interest. C. J. O. Harrison
Letters
Oiled seabirds successfully cleaning their plumage I was
interested to read the note by T. R. Birkhcad, Clare Lloyd and P.
Corkhill concerning the successful cleaning of oiled plumage by
seabirds ( Brit . Birds , 66: 535-537). Instances of this behaviour are of
necessity difficult to confirm in the field, since individual birds,
unless colour-ringed as in the cases quoted in the note, are virtu-
ally impossible to distinguish. However, I have one record concern-
ing removal of oil which I feel may be of interest.
On 9th March 1970, at St Ives, Cornwall, an adult Bonaparte’s
Gull Larus Philadelphia which had been present since 1st February
(Brit. Birds, 64: 354) was seen to have become oiled on the lower
belly and vent region. The bird was feeding normally, and five days
later it was completely clean. It remained in the area until 26th
April and appeared to suffer no ill-effects.
It would seem that the smaller gulls, although their diet is less
varied than that of the larger (scavenging) species, can neverthe-
less tolerate at least moderate levels of oil in the digestive system.
It is likely that this cleaning of oil by preening may be more
common than might be expected but, unless individuals can be
recognised, instances of it will not be apparent to field-workers.
John Phillips
Department of Zoology, University of Newcastle upon Tyne
The note on oiled seabirds successfully cleaning their plumage
fails to consider moult as a possible explanation for the fairly
rapid and complete disappearance of the oil. The observations
quoted were mainly in April when gulls and auks are nearing the
end of a complete moult of the body plumage, and it seems likely
that the quick change to clean feathers could at least be aided by
the shedding of the oiled ones.
Letters
484
I have no details of the capabilities of the salivary enzymes and
their effect on such toxic substances as oil but, in my opinion,
preening alone would not leave the feathers in their original white
condition: some staining would surely remain.
It seems that more observations are necessary, and certainly more
details need to be presented, before it can be accepted as proven
that complete removal of oil by preening alone is possible.
John R. Mather
44 Aspin Lane, Knaresborough, Yorkshire
Feral parrakeets and control of introductions M. D. England’s
concern {Brit. Birds, 67: 393-394) over feral populations of the
Ringneck Parrakeet Psittacula krameri may be heightened by my ex-
perience of this species. I first saw one at liberty in Wallington,
Surrey, on 18th September 1962 and thereafter saw it almost daily
throughout the abnormally prolonged hard weather of the winter
that followed, my last sighting being on 16th March 1963. I under-
stand it was then ‘recaptured’ by its alleged owner. Thus, with
access to food especially put out, it demonstrated its ability to survive
until some ten days after the last traces of snow had vanished.
During the most severe weather it roosted nightly in a group of
trees, predominantly elm, in a nearby recreation ground.
K. D. G. Mitchell
ig Carleton Avenue, Wallington, Surrey sm6 gLW
In a recent letter in which he advocated the elimination of feral
populations of parrakeets now living in southern England, M. D.
England referred to the situation in parts of the USA where several
introduced bird species have become pests. There are, of course,
notable examples in Britain of introductions producing serious
pests. One such species is the Grey Squirrel Sciurus carolinensis,
introduced in the 1890’s and already a major pest in broadleaved
woodland in England, Wales and parts of southern Scotland. The
Forestry Commission rates this species as a greater threat, through
its bark-stripping activities, to our broadleaved trees than that
facing our elms from the aggressive strain of Dutch Elm Disease.
It is also a predator on the nestlings of some of our native birds.
All that can be done now is to undertake such control measures as
limit the damage to broadleaved trees to an acceptable level.
The lesson from this and other examples — such as the Coypu Myo-
castor coypus and Mink Mustela vison — is quite clear. Introductions
should be made, or captive species liberated, only after a thorough
examination of the probable consequences, and subsequent develop-
ments properly monitored. Uncontrolled populations should be
eliminated before they become so widespread that such action is no
Letters
485
longer possible. In the present instance, the added risk to human
health from ornithosis makes this a clear case for immediate action.
R. B. Tozer
16 West Craigs Crescent, Edinburgh eh 12 8nb
Effects of agricultural change on birds YVe are sorry that
Derek Barber (Brit. Birds, 67: 395-396) should misunderstand our
thesis. It is a pity, too, that he should choose to comment about our
supposed travels rather than offer any ecological evidence or
scholarship to rebuke our case. Incidentally, we were employed as
ecologists for sixteen years by the Ministry of Agriculture, and did
see something of the farming scene in Britain, as well as abroad.
Our paper concerned birds and agriculture and our results need not
be applicable to non-avian taxa. There are three broad concepts
which we should like to distinguish to clarify the discussion about
hedges and the farmland avifauna.
First, it has never been denied that hedgerows attract certain
bird species and that these must be lost from an area if the hedges
and woodlands are removed. In this context the Monks Wood
pamphlets on hedges were intended to advise the interested farmer
how to attract a few' woodland edge animals on to his property.
Obviously, hedges vary in quality and it is not really fair to include
all of them in one category. A rather high and wide mixed bramble
and hawthorn hedge, preferably with some mature trees such as
ash, seems necessary to attract Lesser Whitethroats Sylvia curruca;
such hedges, especially if they support an understorey of nettles and
other herbs, arc very space-demanding. Cirl Buntings Emberiga
cirlus in southern England favour the w'ell-developed elm hedges. A
stunted, low and narrow hawthorn hedge may be accepted by
Yellowhammers E. citrinella or Corn Buntings E. calandra but be
unsuitable for most warbler species; nevertheless, given the presence
of a sufficient headland of nettles, willowherb or other tall herbs,
Whitethroats S. communis might be present. Clearly, if hedgerows
exist close to footpaths and other places of public access, they may
harbour a variably interesting avifauna that can bring pleasure to
many people. It is worth commenting that many of the hedges that
are removed by farmers separate small fields and are isolated from
all but the owner or determined trespassers. Very few' people ever
wander round the fields at Carlton and our study area is not atypical
in this respect.
Many naturalists believe that the collective network of hedges
provides a valuable reservoir of wildlife such that, as each segment is
removed, the total populations of different animal species become
more at risk, especially since woodland has also been so depleted.
If true, this would put a premium on hedgerow preservation and
Letters
486
inevitably a degree of conflict would arise between agricultural and
conservation interests. This brings us to our second concept, which
in no way contradicts the first. This is that hedgerows are sub-
optimal habitats for the majority of bird species and can support
individuals for only a variable proportion of the year. At critical
seasons these birds must become dependent on more favourable
habitats. The literature already quoted which referred to the Wren
Troglodytes troglodytes, Great Tit Parus major and Woodpigeon Columba
palumbus seems adequate to justify this conclusion in some detail.
But the principle is emphasised by two rather more extreme
examples. Thus, whether or not Whitethroats will settle to breed on
English farmland depends primarily on the factors governing their
survival in Africa: it appears that recent droughts explain the
paucity of survivors which are currently returning from their con-
tranuptial grounds to summer in Britain (see D. Winstanley, R.
Spencer and K. Williamson, Bird Study, 21 : 1 - 1 4) . No matter how
many suitable sites were provided, farmers could not affect the
current status of this species. Of course, farmer a might attract the
only pair from farmer b but this is basically a matter of distribution
and is embraced by our first concept. Nor, again, could the pro-
vision of old rambling hedges affect the present status of the Red-
backed Shrike Lanius collurio, which is on the edge of its range in
Britain and sensitive to cold, cloudy summers (see Man and Birds by
R. K. Murton, 1971). Our second concept, therefore, emphasises
the need to define the optimum ecological requirements of individual
species and not to assume that the blanket preservation of hedges
will solve the real problems.
Our third concept concerns the capacity of hedges to increase
the ecological diversity by supporting species that would not other-
wise be present. We contrasted hedgeless farms in Iceland and
Westmorland (diversity in these areas is partly depressed because of
climatic factors) with areas in Cambridgeshire, Suffolk and Dorset
(a fairly wide geographical choice for such insular folk) and it was
immediately evident that there were more bird species per 100
acres on farms supporting hedges. But ecological diversity did not
differ appreciably between sites. This is primarily because many of
the species inhabiting farmland live at extremely low densities and
their populations are dependent on reservoirs in more optimum
sites, as already mentioned. In most cases farmland is an unsaturated
habitat, in which intraspecific competition is reduced, and this
is a generalisation applicable to man-altered ecosystems. It is in
such circumstances that House Sparrows Passer domesticus and
Starlings Sturnus vulgaris have learned to ‘hawk’ for flies because
they are not in competition with such species as the Spotted Fly-
catcher Muscicapa striata. The Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus schoeno-
Letters 487
baentts may continue to do well on the farm until it is forced to
compete with a high Whitethroat population.
Crucial to this diversity concept, and a point overlooked by Mr
Barber, is that there is a well-established logarithmic relationship
between the number of species and the number of individuals in
any sample. For a farm to support many bird species there must be a
high total population in terms of individual numbers, and the late
G. B. G. Benson’s Suffolk site was quoted as an example. Now in
order to support a high bird population, a relatively big proportion
of the primary production must be channelled into the feeding chains
on which the various species depend. A lot of energy can be channel-
led out of the ecosystem in situations where the farming is inefficient.
Inefficiency may result because the farming is on marginal land
so that many ‘waste’ areas of, for example, untilled scrub or nettle
patch occur. For instance, in East Suffolk much farmland is only
just profitable because it is practised on land that was once gorse-
covered hcathland. Should the wheat and barley ‘barons’ of mid-
Anglia be persuaded to divert their primary production from corn
to make their standards of farming comparable with those practised
on less favourable soils? This is the real conservation issue under
discussion and in this context hedgerows remain a ‘red herring’.
Finally, for Mr Barber to claim that the ‘conservation camp’ is in
contact with only a minute proportion of the 200,000 farm holdings
in England and Wales and so must adopt ‘a blunt instrument’ on
‘as wide a front as possible’ is no justification for advocating woolly
and nebulous generalisations about the value of hedges. We are
thankful that the ‘agricultural camp’ adopts a positive approach,
does manage to reach the individual farmer and does select policies
which are geared to specific and defined objectives — even if we
may disagree with some of the aims. We do not apologise for trying
to take a scientific attitude. But we do assure Mr Barber that we too
have an aesthetic appreciation for some hedgerows and we deplore
the acts of vandalism whereby they are unnecessarily destroyed by
the hatchet or uncontrolled fire.
R. K. Murton and N. J. Westwood
Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Monks Wood Experimental Station,
Abbots Ripton, Huntingdon PE17 2LS
News and comment Robert Hudson
Rookery census The last national survey of the British Rook population was
undertaken by the British Trust for Ornithology in 1945; much data was gathered
(and is still on file), though rather little was published. Various local surveys
carried out during the past 20 years or so have indicated that the Rook has
News and comment
488
declined dramatically in many areas; and it is obviously important that the
extent of these population changes should be known accurately, so that there is a
baseline against which future changes can be measured. Therefore the BTO has
initiated a National Survey of Rookeries, to be carried out in the United Kingdom
in 1975. Recording will be on the basis of county boundaries as they were before
April 1974. Observers are requested to give the location and six-figure map
reference, dates of counts, number of nests present, and altitude; breakdowns of
nests by tree species will be valuable, but are optional. For the purposes of this
National Survey, any groups of nests 100 metres or more apart will count as
separate rookeries. The national organisers are Bryan Sage ( 1 3 Dugdale Hill Lane,
Potters Bar, Hertfordshire en6 2dp) and J. D. R. Vernon (55 Wolfridge Ride,
Alveston, Bristol bsi2 2Pr), who are arranging regional coverage through contact
with BTO representatives and local ornithological societies. They would be glad
to hear from any volunteers who have not yet been approached locally.
Future of Foulness Soon after the Government announcement that the Maplin
Airport project had been cancelled, a consortium of 13 naturalists’ bodies, includ-
ing the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, the Wildfowl Trust and the
Essex Naturalists’ Trust, issued a booklet ( Foulness : a window on the wilderness) con-
taining proposals for the future of Foulness Island. Suggesting that Foulness
should become ‘a window on the wilderness’ for 3^ million people living in north
London and south Essex, the consortium’s proposals include a ‘drive-round’
reserve of the American type, an amusement beach, a visitor centre with catering
facilities, an ornamental waterfowl collection, the inevitable sea-wall hides and,
perhaps, landing points for yachting enthusiasts and facilities for anglers, all of
this to be fitted in with traditional farming. These proposals have been widely
acclaimed, though I have doubts whether it would really be wise to open the door
quite so wide. A major attraction of Foulness lies in its remoteness and relative
inaccessibility; the ‘wilderness’ would inevitably be lost if 3J million people were
given right of vehicular access to what would become a safari park for indigenous
fauna. Unrestricted access for birdwatchers is surely not needed; the island’s
avifauna is notable for its quantities rather than for local rarities, and the waders
and waterfowl concerned are all species which can be seen readily elsewhere on
the coasts of Essex and neighbouring counties. Foulness would be best kept as a
refuge area, as it has been hitherto, though some additional protection for terns
nesting on the outer shellbank is needed. But I believe all such discussion to be
theoretical. My own guess is that the Government will allow the Ministry of
Defence units to remain on the island in order to save the £25 millions it would
cost to relocate them. I, for one, will not be disappointed if this turns out to be the
case.
Bristol Channel reserve The island of Steep Holm in the Bristol Channel is to
be established as a wildlife conservation and study area in memory of the late
Kenneth Allsop, writer and broadcaster. Steep Holm is a long and narrow island
with 60-metre cliffs, and holds one of the largest gulleries in southern England.
A 1969 census taken during Operation Seafarer revealed that the Herring Gull
had increased there during the previous 13 years from 3,600 pairs to nearly 5,100
pairs, while the Lesser Black-backed Gull had been static at 600 pairs; there are
also small colonies (under 100 pairs) of Cormorants and Great Black-backed
Gulls.
New BTO Guide The latest addition to the BTO Guide series is no. 16, written
by Chris Mead and entitled ‘Bird Ringing’. This 64-page booklet contains a
wealth of information, including over 30 maps of recoveries, and is written not
only for ringers but also for ordinary birdwatchers and schoolteachers requiring
News and comment
489
background information of a non-technical nature. Though migration, especially
long-distance recoveries, occupies a major part of the text, there are also sections
dealing with the historical background, ring specifications, trapping methods,
biometrics, and population dynamics, and a table of longevity records. BTO Guide
no. 16 is available from the British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring,
Hertfordshire HP23 5NR, price 5op post free.
Another blot on Shell’s escutcheon On 9th August, the 210,000-ton Royal
Dutch Shell supertanker Aletula, carrying 194,000 tons of Persian Gulf crude oil,
grounded at the entrance to the Straits of Magellan just before some tens of
thousands of penguins were due to return to breeding colonies on three islands in
the centre of the straits. By the time she was refloated on 25th September, it was
calculated that some 54,000 tons of oil had been spilt, polluting 65 km of coast,
while another 50,000 tons has been offloaded, leaving 90,000 tons aboard a poten-
tially leaky single hull for the remainder of her journey, which (it was thought)
might now be extended to her place of construction, Japan. There has been
comparatively little information on the harm caused to birdlife. However, accord-
ing to a report circulated by the Smithsonian Institution Center for Short-lived
Phenomena, a survey team, including an ornithologist from the Instiluto de la
Patagonia (Chile), walked 40 km of the afTected shore on 4th*5th September and
found about 250 dead birds, including over 100 cormorants and 40 penguins.
Others were found along unaffected shores, at the top of a 15-metrc cliff, and up to
nearly a kilometre inland; thus it was thought that the total mortality could have
been at least four or five times greater than that indicated by the main count. Since
it was considered that much of the oil would have been carried out to sea, there
may of course have been even more mortality there. It may be recalled that, in a
better-watched area, a leakage of similar size from the Torrey Canyon caused a
known mortality of at least 10,000 birds. (Contributed by Dr W. R. P. Bourne.)
Captive breeding Those who shared my interest in Derrick England’s most
useful paper on the escape problem (Brit. Birds , 67: 1 77-197) may like to know that
a recent issue of the Avicultural Magazine contains (80: 153-159) a ‘Register of
birds bred in Britain during 1973’, compiled by Peter Brown. This first attempt at
such a register may be incomplete (for example, Goldfinch is not mentioned), but
it is instructive in showing the variety of non-domestic species currently being bred
in captivity, and also useful for giving the names and addresses of the aviculturists
concerned. The list is much too long to repeat here, but it includes such (to me)
surprising birds as Black Kite, American Kestrel, Spur- winged Plover, Snowy Owl.
Lazuli Bunting and Spanish Sparrow. It is also interesting to note the absence of
entries for certain species known to be difficult to propagate, but which arc never-
theless exhibited periodically in die British classes at cagebird shows: the European
thrushes and wagtails, Waxwing, Hawfinch and Crossbill come readily to mind.
One hopes that this register will be published annually, and will be properly
supported by conscientious aviculturists.
Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds
August reports D. A. Christie
These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
August was dominated by weather from the Atlantic, a series of depressions
crossing Britain and producing generally cool and unsettled conditions with
490
August reports
temperatures below average and rainfall above normal. There were short periods
of northerly winds, sometimes strong, especially in the second week, and occasional
anticyclonic situations to the east of Britain produced some interesting records on
the east coast, particularly in the last few days of the month.
SHEARWATERS TO SWANS
Single Balearic Shearwaters Pi/ffinus puffinus mauretanicus were noted at Dungeness
(Kent) on gth and 18th, at Hengistbury Head (Hampshire) on 16th, and at
Bempton cliffs (Yorkshire) flying south-east on 31st. A Cory’s Shearwater
Caloneclris diomedea was at Spurn (Yorkshire) on 20th, while what was either this
species or a Great Shearwater P. gravis was seen at Girdle Ness (Aberdeenshire)
on 31st. Sooty Shearwaters P. griseus were reported from nine places, the largest
flocks being over 300 at Cape Clear Island (Co. Cork) on 24th and 41 on 10th at
Seaton Sluice/St Mary’s (Northumberland), where a total of 103 flew north and
one south on nine dates during the month.
A Purple Heron Ardea purpurea was seen on four dates at Minsmere (Suffolk),
one was at Hickling Broad (Norfolk) from 17th into September, and another on
the River Dee (Cheshire) on 27th may have been the one seen at Pennington Flash
on the same day. The only Little Egrets Egretta garzetta were singles at Tumble
(Carmarthenshire) on 2nd and at Stanpit (Hampshire) on 8th. A Black Stork
Ciconia nigra was reported from the Outer Hebrides during the latter part of the
month, though the details are not known to us. Spoonbills Platalea leucorodia ,
rather numerous in Britain in 1974, were present in at least five places during
August with up to three at both Stodmarsh (Kent) and Minsmere; at Blithfield
Reservoir (Staffordshire) one which arrived in the middle of July (Brit. Birds,
67: 447) was joined by a second at the end of that month, both staying until 16th
August, and at Hengistbury Head one was seen coming in off the sea on 3rd.
A Blue-winged Teal Anas discors was at Hornsea Mere (Yorkshire) from 10th
to 26th. The Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis seen at Whittle Dene (Northum-
berland) in July (Brit. Birds, 67: 447) reappeared on 3rd August, and what was
almost certainly the same bird was seen in the same county at Hallington on 10th.
Other early winter wildfowl included single Goldeneyes Bucephala clangula at
Netherfield (Nottinghamshire) on 20th and at Staines Reservoir (Middlesex) on
27th; up to ten Velvet Scoters Melanitla fusca off Minsmere during August, as
well as nine flying north at Seaton Sluice on gth; Brent Geese Branta bernicla
in Kent at Yantlet on 4th (four) and at Chetney on 18th (14); and a Whooper
Swan Cygnus cygnus at Loch Insh (Inverness-shire) on 22nd, plus two at Berwick-
upon-Tweed (Northumberland) on 28th which may have been injured.
RAPTORS, CRAKES AND CHAR ADRIIFORMES
Single Honey Buzzards Pernis apivorus were noted at Beachy Head (Sussex) on
29th and on the Calf of Man on 30th, and an immature female Montagu’s
Harrier Circus pygargus appeared at Sandwich Bay (Kent) on 11th and 16th.
Ospreys Pandion haliaetus were recorded at Chew Valley Lake (Somerset) on 5th
and 6th, at Barton Broad (Norfolk) on gth, at Sevenoaks (Kent) on 12th and
28th (two), on the Calf of Man on 13th, and near Lyng (Norfolk) at the very
end of the month. A Red Kite Milvus milvus appeared at Bough Beech Reservoir
(Kent) on 15th. Only a single Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus was reported,
a male at Sutton Bingham Reservoir (Dorset/Somerset) on 5th. There were two
Spotted Crakes Porzana porzana at Leighton Moss (Lancashire) on 28th, and a
migrant Corncrake Crex crex was at Beachy Head on 31st.
A very early Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus was reported at Pcgwell Bay
(Kent) on 28th, but scarce migrant waders were few. Kentish Plovers Charadrius
alexandrinus, apart from four on Herm (Channel Islands) on 21st, were noted at
only four places: singles at Cley (Norfolk) on 10th, at Titchwell (also Norfolk)
49 1
August reports
from 17th to 26th and at Abcrthaw (Glamorgan) on 25th, while at Sandwich Bay
there were three from 3rd to 6th and one on 9th and 12th. Dotterels Eudromias
morinellus were found at seven localities: five at YVittersham (Kent) on 16th, two
at Beachy Head on 18th, and single birds at Wisbech sewage farm (Lincolnshire/
Norfolk) on 24th and 25th, on Fair Isle (Shetland) on 26th, at Seasaltcr (Kent)
on 28th, at Bempton clifFs on 31st (flying south), and on St Mary’s (Scilly) from
the end of the month until 10th September. Temminck’s Stints Calidris tem-
minckii turned up at eight places, excluding one at Bittell (Worcestershire) from
30th July to 1st August which was omitted from the July reports: two at Rain-
ham (Essex) from 10th, two at Pennington Marshes (Hampshire) on 27th, and
singles at two sites in Northumberland, and in Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire,
Northamptonshire and Lincolnshire/Norfolk. An extremely early Grey Phalarope
Phalaropus fulicarius was at Washington (Co. Durham) on 2nd, and more typically
Red-necked P. lobatus occurred at Wisbech sewage farm and Minsmere on 10th,
at Covcnham Reservoir (Lincolnshire) on 18th and 19th and at Walberswick
(Suffolk) from 20th to 25th. A formidable array of vagrant waders comprised a
dowitcher Limnodromus sp heard at Steart (Somerset) on 4th and 1 ith; a possible
Hudsonian Curlew Numenius ( phaeopus ) hudsonicus on Out Skerries (Shetland)
from 24th July to 8th August; Spotted Sandpipers Tringa macularia at Weir
Wood Reservoir (Sussex) from 1 ith to 17th, at Aberthaw on 25th and on St Mary's
from 27th until 11th September; a Lesser Yellowlegs T. flavipes at Sandbach
(Cheshire) from 26th to about 20th September; a Terek Sandpiper Xenus
cinereus at Sutton Bingham Reservoir on 18th (a Western Sandpiper C. mauri
was reported from the same place from 20th to 22nd) ; White-rumped Sand-
pipers C. fuscicollis at Pennington marshes on 10th and at Sidlesham Ferry
(Sussex) from 24th to 28th; Pectoral Sandpipers C. melanotos in Hampshire at
Farlington marshes on 10th and nth, at Warsash on 17th and at Calshot from
24th to 26th; a Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus reported near Canning-
ton (Somerset) on 1 8th ; Wilson’s Phalaropes P. tricolor on the River Parrett,
Steart, on 5th, at Dibden Bay (Hampshire) from 14th to 18th, and at Cape Clear
Island on 24th; and finally a Black-winged Pratincole Glareola nordmanni in the
Cley area from 24th.
Three Arctic Skuas Stercorarius parasiticus appeared well inland at Barbrook
Reservoir (Derbyshire) on 18th, and Long-tailed Skuas S. longicaudus were seen
at Spurn on 14th, 18th and 27th, and at Minsmere on 24th. Also at Spurn,
four different Sabine’s Gulls Larus sabini were identified between 14th and
26th; another Sabine’s was at Formby Point (Lancashire) on 17th and 26th.
White-winged Black Terns Chlidonias leucopterus appeared at Swalccliffe (Kent)
on 22nd, at Dungeness from 25th until mid-September, at Sandwich Bay on 28th
and 31st, and at Covenham Reservoir from 30th until 10th September. Two
Whiskered Terns C. hybrida were seen, at Chew Valley Lake on 10th and at
Warsash on 17th; a Gull-billed Gelochelidon nilotica at Slapton Ley (Devon)
from 8th to about 15th; and two Caspian Hydroprogne caspia, at Spurn on 3rd and
at Loch of Strathbeg (Aberdeenshire) on 13th.
NEAR-PASSERINES AND PASSERINES
From southern Europe came an Alpine Swift Apus melba to Beachy Head on 25th
and Bee-eaters Merops apiaster to Dungeness on 7th and to Hellesdon, Norwich
(Norfolk), on 26th. Single Hoopoes Upupa epops were seen at Dungeness on 30th
and at Sandwich Bay from 30th to 13th September, as well as at three places on
Guernsey during the last week.
Migrant Great Spotted Woodpeckers Dendrocopos major were on Fair Isle
from 9th to 1 rth (two) and at Spurn on 30th and 31st. The first Redwing Turdus
iliacus reported was at Bamburgh (Northumberland) on 30th, and Fieldfares
T. pilaris arrived at six places, the first on Fair Isle on 9th, with a flock of 25 at
492
August reports
Spurn on 31st. A nightingale Luscinia sp was on the Fame Islands (Northumber-
land) in the last week, and the only Bluethroat L. svecica was at Gibraltar Point
(Lincolnshire) on 30th, when a large fall occurred which will be summarised later.
On Fair Isle there were vagrant Reed Warblers Acrocephalus scirpaceus on 23rd
and 30th-3 1st (both trapped); and a Sedge Warbler A. schoenobaenus was seen on
20th and 23rd. A Marsh Warbler A. palustris trapped on the Calf of Man on 13th
was the first Manx record.
Melodious Warblers Hippolais polyglotta were found at Beachy Head on 17th
and 28th, at Portland Bill (Dorset) on 17th (three) and from 27th to 31st (two), on
Skokholm (Pembrokeshire) on 20th, 21st (two) and 22nd, and on Bardsey (Caer-
narvonshire) from 30th to 4th September. Reports of 21 Icterine Warblers
Ft. icterina were received, all from the east coast; only four were outside the two
days 30th-3ist when an obvious influx took place, with four together at Teesmouth
(Co. Durham) on 30th. Barred Warblers Sylvia msoria followed a similar pattern,
again all from the east coast apart from one at Radipole Lake (Dorset) at the very
end of the month; on Fair Isle they appeared from 19th and maxima were four
on 29th and six on 31st, while elsewhere ten birds were found, six during the last
two days. Tied up with the fall from the north-east were two Greenish Warblers
Phylloscopus trochiloides, one trapped at Tynemouth (Northumberland) on 30th
and the other at Kilnsea, near Spurn, from 31st to 5th September. Wood
Warblers P. sibilatrix appeared on the coast at Portland Bill on 4th, at Brean
Down (Somerset) on 15th and on Fair Isle on 31st, while a Bonelli’s Warbler
P. bonelli stayed at Great Yarmouth (Norfolk) from 30th until 2nd September.
An Arctic Warbler P. borealis was identified on the Out Skerries on 18th. A
very unusual record concerned a Dartford Warbler S. undata discovered on 1 ith
at Steart, well away from the nearest breeding grounds; the bird was still present in
October. Two Red-breasted Flycatchers Ficedula parva were reported, at Old
Winchester Hill (Hampshire) on 28th and at Holy Island (Northumberland) on
31st.
A Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris arrived at Portland about 24th and another at
Dungeness on 29th, and at Beachy Head there was one on 29th and two from 30th
to 1 st September. Also at Portland, there was a Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator
on 23rd and 24th, and on Fair Isle an immature appeared on 30th. A Serin
Serinus serinus was reported from Old Winchester Hill at the end of the month.
A Scarlet Rosefinch Carpodacus erythnnus on Fair Isle on 29th and another on
the Fame Islands on 31st were the only two during August. Bramblings Fringilla
montifringilla were heard passing Bempton on 30th, the day the first Lapland
Bunting Calcarius lappomcus arrived at Spurn. A female or immature Yellow-
breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola remained on Fair Isle from 29th to 3rd
September, but the only Ortolans E. hortulana were on the south coast, one at
Beachy Head on 25th and another at Portland on 31st, continuing the steady
decline of this species as an east coast autumn migrant.
stop press Two more Pallas’s Warblers at Beachy Head on 17th November
made four for that locality, and about ten for Britain, during this autumn. (Earlier,
on 18th October, both Dusky and Radde’s Warblers were trapped at Beachy Head.)
Lesser Yellowlegs were at Truro (Cornwall) and Freckleton (Lancashire) at the
beginning of November. A male Steller’s Eider was at Westray (Orkney) from
25th October. The biggest news has been of influxes from Scandinavia and huge
numbers of Little Auks on the east coast. Passages of up to 319 Little Auks in a day
were recorded at Spurn and elsewhere on 2gth-30th October. Large flocks ol
Waxwings arrived at the same time and Rough-legged Buzzards a little earlier,
the latter including an unprecedented 45 coasting south at M fits mere on 22nd and
40 at Walberswick (Suffolk) on 24th. Both speoies appa^r^to |)C still coming in
in mid-November.
SCARCE MIGRANT BIRDS
IN BRITAIN
AND IRELAND
J. T. R. Sharrock
The papers, first published in British Birds, now revised and expanded.
Dr Sharrock takes the records for a ten-year period and seeks to
explain how, when, where and why the migrants came.
Drawings by P. J. Grant, over 150 diagrams and maps, 24 photographs.
£3 80 net.
SEVENTY YEARS OF BIRDWATCHING
H. G. Alexander
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in and noting the birds he has seen. His correspondence with leading
ornithologists, notes and observations are absorbing reading. “One of
the most notable bird books for years ... a classic of the genre." —
Sunday Times.
Drawings by Robert Gillmor, maps, 14 photographs. £3 80 net.
FLIGHT IDENTIFICATION OF EUROPEAN RAPTORS
R. F. Porter, Ian Willis, Steen Christensen, Bent Pors Nielsen
The authors have been studying European birds of prey for many years
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WATCHING BIRDS
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144 INGRAM STREET, GLASGOW G1 1EJ OAi-zS’eeee
Volume 67 Number 11 November 1974
449 The birds of Regent’s Park, London, 1959-68 D. I. M. Wallace
Plate 66
Obituaries
469 Matthew Fontaine Maury Meiklejohn, ma (1913-1974) Plate 67
472 Ludwig Koch, mbe (1881-1974)
Notes
474 Kestrel taking prey from Short-eared Owl Geoffrey L. Boyle
475 Possible functions of the tail spots in the Woodcock Captain Colling-
wood Ingram Plate 65a
477 Feeding association between Marsh Sandpiper and dabbling ducks
J. F. Reynolds
477 Ross’s Gull in Hampshire foot-paddling to disturb organisms Bernard
King Plate 64
478 Cuckoo parasitising Swallow G. H. E. Young Plate 65b
478 Great Tit commencing clutch before lining nest D. Warden
Reviews
479 The Cairngorms. Their Natural History and Scenery by Desmond Nether-
sole-Thompson and Adam Watson David Lea
480 Cranes of the World by Lawrence Walkinshaw; Owls of the World edited
by John A. Burton Stanley Cramp
481 Scarce Migrant Birds in Britain and Ireland by J. T. R. Sharrock D. /. M.
Wallace
482 Urvogel by Stephan Burkhard Dr C. J. O. Harrison
Letters
483 Oiled seabirds successfully cleaning their plumage John Phillips, and
John R. Mather
484 Feral parrakeets and control of introductions K. D. G. Mitchell, and R. B.
Tozer
485 Effects of agricultural change on birds Dr R. K. Murton and N. J. West-
wood
487 News and comment Robert Hudson
489 August reports D. A. Christie £
Printed by Henry Burt <1 Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA
Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF
Volume 67 Number 12 December 1974
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News and comment Robert Hudson, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove,
Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR
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SCARCE MIGRANT BIRDS
IN BRITAIN
AND IRELAND
J. T. R. Sharrock
The papers, first published in British Birds, now revised and expanded.
Dr Sharrock takes the records for a ten-year period and seeks to
explain how, when, where and why the migrants came.
Drawings by P. J. Grant, over 150 diagrams and maps, 24 photographs.
£3 80 net.
SEVENTY YEARS OF BIRDWATCHING
H. G. Alexander
The author began birdwatching in 1898 and has never stopped delighting
in and noting the birds he has seen. His correspondence with leading
ornithologists, notes and observations are absorbing reading. "One of
the most notable bird books for years ... a classic of the genre." —
Sunday Times.
Drawings by Robert Gillmor, maps. 14 photographs. £3 80 net.
FLIGHT IDENTIFICATION OF EUROPEAN RAPTORS
R. F. Porter, Ian Willis, Steen Christensen, Bent Pors Nielsen
The authors have been studying European birds of prey for many years
and this book, based on the original British Birds papers, is the
definitive guide to identification of the 38 species present.
Numerous drawings by Ian Willis and 178 photographs. £4 80 net.
WATCHING BIRDS
James Fisher and Jim Flegg
The late James Fisher's celebrated book has been an introduction and
an item of basic equipment for tens of thousands of birdwatchers. Out
of print for many years it has now been revised and updated by
Dr Flegg, Director of the B.T.O.
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Volume 67 Number 12 December 1974
The voice of the Barn Owl
D. S. Bunn
In their descriptions of the voice of the Barn Owl Tyto alba, the
majority of books make no more than vague mention of eerie
screams, hisses and snores, with perhaps some reference to the
twittering sounds that can be heard at closer quarters. Apart from a
general acceptance that ‘snoring’ (see pages 496-498) is a food-call,
no real attempt seems to have been made to classify and interpret
the various notes.
RECORDING METHODS
In order to remedy this, early in 1966 I purchased a portable tape-
recorder writh an unattended running time of just over two hours.
This machine was left before dusk in various buildings known to be
frequented by Barn Owls and was collected just before the tape ran
out. At first there was a problem created by the noise of the motor
being picked up on the recordings, but this was overcome by the
acquisition of a long extension lead for the microphone which
enabled it to be positioned well away from the machine. This also
allowed some attempt at monitoring, and sometimes earphones
were used so that the barn was effectively ‘bugged’. However,
monitoring always proved difficult because it was impossible to
forecast the intensity of a sudden call or the distance and direction
of the bird uttering it. For the latter reason, especially, a parabolic
reflector was not considered a worthwhile investment, and in
practice it was safest in most circumstances to use an ordinary
493
494
Voice of the Barn Owl
non-directional microphone and to leave the record level at maxi-
mum so that nothing would be missed; it was only when calling
was fairly continuous, such as when recording the persistent snores
of the hen or young, that monitoring could do much to improve the
quality of the results. Nevertheless, a fair collection of calls was soon
preserved on tape and by listening to them repeatedly I was able
to implant them on my memory.
During the following six years, close observation of the species
enabled me to interpret these taped calls and also to hear and
identify the meanings of others. In this paper seventeen separate
‘sound signals’, vocal and non-vocal, are defined and discussed.
VOCAL SOUNDS
In this section the calls have been grouped descriptively so far as is
possible, beginning with those most aptly termed screams, following
these with the more hissing notes and then passing on to the chirrup-
ing, twittering and squeaking sounds. The succeeding section deals
with two non-vocal sounds.
Screeching
At its best always produced in flight., this is a loud, drawn-out,
hissing scream with a marked gargling or tremulous effect (perhaps
renderable as ‘shrrreeeeee’), of about two seconds’ duration. The
effort of the wing-beats is reflected in the call, as in the speech of a
person trying to talk while running. The full screech of the female
usually has a different tone from that of the male and is not so
perfectly delivered, tending to break off into a less tremulous
scream.
This is the song of the Barn Owl in the recognised ornithological
sense of the term: a declaration of territorial possession, an invitation
to hen birds by unmated cocks, a sexual stimulant between cock
and hen, and sometimes a contact call to the mate or young when
some distance separates them. There are many variations. As dusk
falls, cock Barn Owls in particular frequently give series of subdued
screeches prior to emergence from the roost. If a hen is present she
often joins in with similar screeches. Not all screeches are clear and
tremulous: sometimes perched birds give hoarse, non-tremulous
versions and there is every gradation between the two. All forms
of screech may vary from little more than a chirrup to a very loud
scream. Occasionally two loud screeches are run together to produce
a most bizarre sound, and during sexual chases the most strange-
sounding screeches are heard. During and after encounters with
intruding birds, not necessarily of the same species, the screech
takes on a harsh tone, apparently expressing anger, but apart from
this no differences in the functions of any of the variations have
Voice of the Barn Owl 495
been detected. The female’s screech is generally more husky, this
being increasingly evident the louder she calls.
Purring
In the cock this is a continuous series of unusually mellow, subdued,
tremulous screeches; the hen’s purring is distinctly higher pitched,
held on a sustained note and not mellow. This call functions as an
attracting or ‘come over here’ call to the mate. It is used by the
cock in courtship to invite the hen to join him at some possible
nest-site, and by the hen to call the cock to her at the nest or to
some possible future nest-site when he arrives with prey. Subdued
screeches can grade imperceptibly into purring.
Wailing
This call has been heard only a few times. It was noted as ‘a lower-
pitched [than the screech] non-tremulous wail’. On all occasions it
was uttered, together with much screeching, during aerial chases
in which the two birds dashed to and fro for some time, and this
behaviour corresponded closely with records by other workers of
what I believe to have been wailing in sexual chases. It was sus-
pected that the hen uttered the wails while the pursuing cock did the
screeching. Indeed, this call may simply be a development of the
hen’s less tremulous screech. I have come to the conclusion that
wailing is probably the so-called hoot of the Barn Owl.
Screaming
1. As an alarm call. This is a loud, drawn-out, high-pitched scream
or squeal, without a tremulous effect or hissing tone; it is almost
always uttered in flight. It may vary in volume, length and tone,
but is always easily recognisable. I believe that this alarm call is
sometimes thought to be the screech, as it is much more commonly
heard in the daytime. It is frequently uttered at the sight of a
human being during diurnal hunting activities and rarely when
flushed from the roost. Like most birds, Barn Owls are particularly
inclined to give the alarm when there are young present.
2. In mobbing. Screaming in this form is an explosive yell, normally
quite distinct from the alarm call. It seems to denote a combination
of fear and anger, directed at mammalian predators and, according
to which emotion is chiefly expressed, differing from the alarm call
to a lesser or greater extent. It is usually heard from a perched bird
that is screaming abuse at some ground predator. Newly fledged
owlets are particularly inclined to use this call because they are not
so easily frightened as adults, and they frequently direct it at
humans.
496 Voice of the Barn Owl
3. Expressing anxiety or mild alarm. This is a plaintive but piercing
whistle or scream, a subdued version of the alarm call given by a
perched bird. It is occasionally given by a hen when the nest is
endangered, but it has been heard very rarely, the alarm call being
more often uttered in this situation.
4. In distress. A volley of loud screams is uttered, often a pro-
gression of the sustained defensive hiss (see below) : if a hissing bird
is approached closely or handled, by degrees the hiss will develop
into this call. It is used also in fighting.
Hissing
1. In defence. This is an incredibly loud and prolonged hiss,
repeated again and again, and often ending in a little squeaking
whistle as the breath runs out. The bill appears closed but is
probably slightly parted. This sound serves to intimidate and
frighten off enemies, including aggressive members of its own
species. It varies considerably according to how hard the bird is
being pressed: the closer it is approached the louder and more
screaming the hiss becomes, and A. B. Warburton (in lift.) and I
have independently heard this call, uttered by brooding hens, to
develop into what could only be described as a shrill hoot. There is
often a whistling or squeaking quality to the call, most evident at
the end, as mentioned above. It is typically uttered by cornered or
captive birds but once was directed at a motionless observer by a
hen with young who suspected but was not sure of his identity. It has
been heard more than once from well-fledged owlets that were
suffering aggression from their parents.
2. Also in defence as part of an intimidatory display. A very short,
quiet hiss is delivered with the bill open, and is often accompanied
by tongue-clicking (see page 499).
3. In courtship. A single hiss, sometimes with a whistling tendency,
of greatly varying length and intensity, is uttered now and again
when two paired birds are engaged in bouts of squeaking, chirruping
and twittering (see page 498), without any separate function that is
readily apparent. The more drawn-out hisses seem characteristic of
the cock but occur mainly outside the breeding season. It presumably
serves to cement the pair-bond.
Snoring
This term is used to describe a greatly varying hiss. It may be short,
long or very long, simply a hiss or with a marked rasping or wheezing
quality, sometimes with a whistling tendency and at times with
affinities to the screech or to the sustained defensive hiss. The stable
characteristic which clearly identifies it is that it is repeated usually
in a most persistent manner.
497
Voice of the Barn Owl
Regular snoring is heard only from March to September and is
essentially a female and juvenile characteristic. Nevertheless, the
cock also snores at times, but it is perhaps significant that in the case
of the one pair closely observed throughout a twelve-month
period, the cock snored regularly only during the interval between
the termination of breeding (when copulation ceased) and the
end of September (when snoring stops anyway) — a period when
his ‘masculinity’ was probably at a minimum. Snoring is stimulated
by hunger, and not only do the hen and young snore more loudly
and persistently when short of food, but I have witnessed both a
captive and a wild cock expressing their hunger in this way. In
ordinary snoring by the hen, if the cock is close by, her snores are
quiet and rapid ; if very close and the two are engaging in courtship,
the snores are muffled and uttered in quick succession with each
breath; when some distance separates them a loud snore is uttered
every few seconds. Copulation is accompanied by frenzied snores on
the part of the hen which should perhaps be interpreted as a com-
bination of snoring and purring. Much of the variation in tone is
only incidental to the movements of the bird’s head, for snoring
continues while the owl is preening and moving about.
The voice of the hen can usually be distinguished from that of
the young by its throaty tone and shorter duration, but certainly
not invariably. The snores of newly hatched young are wreak and
infrequent, though if short of food they can be uttered quite per-
sistently even at this stage. As the appetite develops the snore is
heard more often and after a fortnight it becomes very persistent
during their accustomed feeding periods. At about this stage it starts
to become more wheezy, rasping and drawn out during excitement,
and from about three weeks it takes on these characteristics most of
the time. It is then an extremely far-carrying sound and for a period
of six or seven weeks the owlets scatter discretion to the wind and
become anything but secretive. Screech-like, very long, drawn-out
hissing calls are occasionally delivered by owlets, on the verge of
independence, that almost seem to be exercising their voices. At
this stage any activity among themselves, and even more the arrival
of an adult w'ith food, causes volleys of frenzied shrieks.
Snoring is not simply a food-call as is so often implied, but is
basically a non-aggressive, self-advertisement call. As with screech-
ing, the response depends on the circumstances: when uttered by
the adults it strengthens the pair-bond and presumably serves to
induce the sexual behaviour necessary for reproduction; when
uttered by the young it acts as a constant reminder to the parents of
their presence and therefore ensures that they are fed; later it
probably serves to suppress for a time the latent aggression of the
adults. Snoring also functions incidentally — but nevertheless
498 Voice of the Barn Owl
importantly — as a contact call, enabling the returning cock to
locate the hen, enabling newly fledged owlets to find their way back
to the nest by ‘homing in’ on the calls of the owlets still present, and,
at a later stage, as a means whereby the young can keep in touch
with one another as they explore around the nest site.
Chirruping, twittering and squeaking
This varied mixture of notes is difficult to describe in detail. Most
characteristic is the cock’s self-advertisement call to the hen — a
combined little squeak and chirrup when he looks in her direction
or approaches her; he also utters a more prolonged, twittering
version when he delivers food to the nest. Paired birds in close
proximity frequently utter squeaking chirrups and twitters to one
another. Outside the breeding season, when the hen is no longer
using the snore, she often greets the cock with tremulous squeaking
notes. A more twittering version of the chirrup is heard charac-
teristically from a bird being preened by its mate.
These notes are less easy to define than the foregoing. Basically
they probably express excitement, but more specifically they usually
function as friendly recognition and attention-seeking calls which
serve to preserve the pair-bond. Sudden louder twitters from the
passive bird in mutual preening seem to indicate discomfort and
perhaps serve to warn the active bird to be more gentle: they pro-
bably represent the adult form of chittering (see below). The hen
sometimes gives a ‘rich’ squeak which appears to be mid-way
between a snore and a normal squeak. All these notes are used by
both sexes, but some are more characteristic of one particular sex,
as already indicated. I can attribute chirrups heard from a captive
Barn Owl defending food from a Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca, from
a cock pursued by an over-enthusiastic owlet, and from a captive
struggling to escape from a cage, only to excitement.
Chittering
There is a series of chittering (or twittering) notes peculiar to the
young, very characteristic during the first month of life. Chicks
call loudly with this note when the hen leaves them and also when
exploring in the nest area. One newly hatched chick left by the hen
gave a whistle with each intake of breath while uttering this call
loudly. After the first week the call changes somewhat and becomes
faster. It seems to express discomfort and to be attention-seeking;
the owlets use it when quarrelling and when touched. Once the hen
finally ceases to remain with them the call is used much less fre-
quently, and when they begin to fly it is heard even more rarely,
being replaced by the chirruping, twittering and squeaking of the
adults from which it can no longer be positively distinguished.
499
Voice of the Barn Owl
Staccato squeaking or clucking
A repeated staccato squeaking, plaintive in tone and quite different
from the ordinary squeaking notes, is uttered by the male during
copulation and can be heard quite commonly in the first half of
the breeding season owing to the extreme frequency of copulation.
Chattering
A highly distinctive, fast, chattering twitter stimulates the owlets
to beg for food and, when used by the cock in food presentation,
indicates his intentions. It is, however, seldom given by him except
when passing food to his mate in the early nesting period. The hen
uses it on the nest from the day prior to the hatching of the first
egg (probably she can hear the chick inside the shell) until the
young can feed themselves without assistance. At first she utters
the call a great deal, not only when feeding the young but also
when toying with prey items strewn around the nest.
NON-VOCAL SOUNDS
Tongue-clicking
A clicking sound often accompanies defensive hissing. This expresses
excitement and often, more specifically, is used to intimidate. It is
also used in courtship. Well-grown owlets tongue-click a great deal
in excitement and aggression.
There has been controversy as to whether this sound, which is
common to at least all the British owls, is produced by snapping
the beak, clicking the tongue, or vocal means. In the case of the
Barn Owl each click is preceded by a protrusion of the tongue,
the click being heard as the tongue is withdrawn and the bill
closed. Observations on owlets in the nest, which are easier to
watch closely, suggest that the closing of the bill is too gentle to
create the sound and that it is actually produced by the movement
of the back of the tongue in the muscular pharynx as the organ is
withdrawn. Strangely, the tongue is usually protruded alternately,
first from one side of the bill and then from the other.
Wing-clapping
A single smacking sound, usually not at all loud and often followed
by a quieter smack — D. Scott (in lift .) has recorded a much louder
version on rare occasions — forms part of an apparendy rather
uncommon display by the cock as he hovers momentarily in front
of the hen. In its quieter form it may be incidental to the strenuous
type of wing-beating involved in hovering. In these cases the wings
appear to touch either above or belowr the body, but Mr Scott
believes that the loud wing-claps he witnessed were made on the
upstroke. As owls in general clap the wings beneath the body, this
is quite at variance with what one would expect.
500 Voice of the Barn Owl
OTHER INCIDENTAL CALLS
The owlets can use some of the adults’ calls while still in the nest.
The two defensive hisses and the screams used as an alarm call and
in mobbing have all been recorded, and on one occasion I strongly
suspected that a juvenile attempt at purring was being made by
two-week-old owlets to call the hen back to the nest.
In addition to the vocalisations listed above, there are other
incidental sounds not to be confused with calls that have a definite
function. While swallowing prey an owl often gives an odd chirp or
two, and a male was once heard to make ‘a very quiet vocal noise
like a contented hen’ while preening. Younger owlets frequently
utter a drawn-out, high-pitched, whistling sound, and very charac-
teristic is the cheeping sneeze of well-grown owlets (adults sneeze
without vocal accompaniment).
DISCUSSION
It is hoped that the above classification represents the complete
vocabulary of the Barn Owl but, despite the vast number of hours
spent observing the species, it would be rash for me to assume that
this is necessarily the case, for there may be calls used only in
circumstances so rare that the chances of an observer being in the
right place at the right time are very remote. The literature has
been searched for help on this aspect and I have, indeed, frequently
found descriptions of calls which could not easily be related to
any in my own list (e.g., in Witherby et al. 1938, Moffatt 1940,
Trollope 1971). It would, however, be most undesirable to add
these seemingly unrecorded notes to my list, as in all probability
they are included already: one of the problems in studying the
Barn Owl’s voice is the difficulty of describing the calls satisfactorily,
none of them being easily rendered verbally on paper, and it is
quite likely that I have simply failed to interpret correctly the
descriptions of these writers.
Another factor which has hampered classification is the way in
which many of the sounds vary and tend to grade into one another.
It was at first hard to know which sounds were merely variations of
one call and which were to be considered separate with different
functions. Sometimes these variations may be significant — for
example, the harshness of the screech when a cock bird is attacking
or has just driven off an intruder clearly indicates its anger — while
in other instances, such as in the numerous variations of the hen’s
snore as she turns her head, moves about, stretches and preens,
they have no importance.
Besides these not altogether unexpected variations, there is a
further complication. While I was maintaining almost daily obser-
vations on a pair throughout the breeding season, I noticed that
501
Voice of the Barn Owl
the hen’s snore changed in character from day to day; it varied in
tone, volume and frequency. Similarly, the vocalisations of the
fledged young differed at each vigil. On some evenings an owlet
would do little more than snore, while on others it would con-
tinually utter a variety of chirruping and squeaking notes for no
apparent reason.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I should like to thank D. Scott, H. Shorrock and A. B. Warburton for their help
in communicating to me their own experiences relating to the calls of the Barn
Owl. My thanks are also due to the Forestry Commission and to Miss R. Edmund-
son and Mr and Mrs D. Lord on whose land my research was conducted.
SUMMARY
Very little seems to have been published regarding the vocabulary of the Barn
Owl Tyto alba. This paper sets out the findings of a long-term study of its voice,
made with the aid of a portable tape-recorder, and describes and interprets in
detail seventeen separate ‘sound signals’, including two non-vocal sounds. The
difficulties of interpreting the calls correctly are discussed.
The young have been noted to use some of the adults’ calls while still in the nest.
Four other sounds appear to have no function, being incidental to other activities.
REFERENCES
Moffatt, C. B. 1940. ‘The notes of the Barn Owl'. Irish Nat. J., 7: 289-292.
Trollopf., J. 1971. ‘Some aspects of behaviour and reproduction in captive Barn
Owls’. Avic. Mag., 77: 1 17-125.
Witherby, H. F., et al. 1938. The Handbook of British Birds. London, vol 2.
D. S. Bunn , ij Walden Road, Blackburn, iM/tcashire bbi qpq
Studies of less familiar birds
ijp Shore Lark and Temminck’s Horned Lark
G. R. Shannon
Photographs by J. B. and S. Bottomley , Eric Soothill, Eric
Hosking and Allen D. Cruickshank
Plates 68- 7 1
Photographs of Shore Larks Eremophila alpestris last appeared in this
journal as long ago as 1952 (Wood 1952). Circumstantial evidence of
probable breeding in the Scottish Highlands in 1972 and 1973
(Watson 1973) makes this an appropriate moment to publish a new
series of photographs of both the Shore Lark and its sole congener,
the Temminck’s (or Desert) Horned Lark E. bilopha.
The Shore Lark, with a circumpolar, mainly Holarctic, distri-
bution, breeds from the highlands of southern Norway, through
Fenno-Scandia and across northern Eurasia, north of the Arctic
Circle, as far as the Kolyma River. It is absent from a large area of
the central Palearctic, but to the south breeds discontinuously from
the Balkan mountains through Asia Minor, the Caucasus and Iran,
reaching Afghanistan, the Himalayas and Tibet, thence fanning out
eastwards through Mongolia to reach the Stanovoi and Tukuringra
Mountains. A species originating in a paleomontane fauna, it
colonised the New World in a relatively recent geological period;
it is the only true native lark of North America, where it is known
as the Horned Lark, and is the only species common to the steppe
zone in both continents. Ranging from Alaska and the arctic coast
of Canada to Lower California and Mexico, it enters the Neo-
tropical zone with an isolated population breeding in grassy
savannah at over 2,000 metres on the Bogota plateau in the
Colombian Andes. Similarly, there is another southern, outlying
population in Africa, breeding in the High and Middle Atlas
Mountains. (Data from Dementiev and Gladkov 1954, Vaurie
1959, Voous i960, British Ornithologists’ Union 1971.)
In Britain the Shore Lark’s status hitherto has been that of a
spring and autumn passage migrant with a variable number
wintering, principally on the east coast. In the light of the report of
probable breeding in Scotland it is significant that a southward
extension of the Scandinavian breeding range in the last few decades
has been described by Bannerman (1953), drawing on the
experience of Dr H. M. S. Blair. On the 1,300-metre plateau of
Hardangervidda in southern Norway, at the same latitude as Shet-
land, the species is now a common breeder.
502
Shore Lark and Temminck's Horned Lark studies
503
Despite wide fluctuations in the numbers wintering in Britain,
there is evidence of an overall increase in the last decade or two
and occurrences away from the east coast are increasingly frequent
and dispersed more widely. For 30 years after the first specimen
was collected at Sheringham, Norfolk, in 1830, few were noted, but
by 1870 notable increases in both numbers and range had occurred
(Bannerman 1953). Towards the end of the 19th century, Shore
Larks were being taken in Kent on the Dover cliffs (Balston et al.
1907) and H. N. Pashley, a taxidermist at Cley, Norfolk, was
handling dozens of specimens each year (Pashley 1925). Bannerman
(1953) cited H. Gatke’s reports of great increases in passage birds
on Heligoland from mid-century, which by 1890 had growm to
hundreds of thousands every autumn, with thousands returning
each spring. In Britain the Shore Lark’s predilection for the east
coast between Teesmouth and Kent was becoming evident. In the
last 20 years, at places such as Teesmouth, Spurn (Yorkshire),
Donna Nook and Gibraltar Point (Lincolnshire) and Cley, flocks of
150 or more have been regularly reported in years of abundance.
Numbers up to 50 are more usual, but most reports, particularly
away from the main wintering areas, speak of two or three birds,
widely dispersed.
Occurrences at Minsmere, Suffolk, are interesting. In the 1960’s
Shore Larks wrere present mostly in twos and threes, with never more
than 14 at any one time, though a flock of 50 wintered regularly
nearby at Slaughden, Aldeburgh. During this period the ‘Scrape’
was being created on the bird reserve; by 1972 this was a shallow
lagoon of some 20 hectares of brackish wrater and exposed mud, with
large colonies of Aster, Salicornia and Spergularia developing when
it dried out in the autumn. In winter 1972/73 numbers on the ‘Scrape’
reached 60-80 from December until March; in the following winter
the pattern was similar, but numbers were halved. Waste seed,
mainly poppy Papaver sp and fat hen Chenopodium album, was put out
in both winters, and Shore Larks joined the Skylarks Alauda arvensis,
Twites Acanthis JJavirostris and Linnets A. cannabina attracted by
this bounty, but never lost their preference for naturally occurring
Salicornia seed (H. E. Axell in litt.).
Hindle (1974) summarised the situation in Kent, at the southern
end of the main British wintering area, for the years 1952-72.
Totals did not exceed 14 in any year before 1969, and during 1964-
66 only a single bird was recorded in the whole of the county, but
from 1969 a dramatic increase occurred, with over 300 birds reported
in the next four years. In autumn 1969 Sussex, too, shared in
the influx; the Isle of Wight had its first four birds; there were
two as far wrest as Somerset, and five inland in Huntingdonshire.
Four at Portland, Dorset, in October 1972 were exceptional and two
504
Shore Lark and Temmincks Horned Lark studies
on St Agnes, Isles of Scilly, even more so, likewise the first occur-
rence on Guernsey in November 1973. In April 1973 there were
seven in Anglesey and in May two on the Isle of Man. Most Scottish
reports have been from Orkney and Shetland, where a few autumn
migrants usually occur, and more recently from the Firth of Forth
area; there are only four Irish records, all from the south-east.
Inland records, mostly from reservoirs and gravel pits, have become
less rare in recent years.
Shore Larks depart late from their northern breeding grounds, so
that their main arrival in Britain is usually not until the third week
of October. The earliest arrive in the second half of September,
sometimes in summer plumage, though there are very occasional
August records. Numbers increase to a peak in early winter, but
decrease again as many birds appear to move on. Reports mount
again as the time approaches for the general departure north, in
early April. In some years there are sizeable totals well into April
and a few remain even in May. At Cley a straggler stayed until
mid-June 1973 and a disabled bird until July. During 1959-72 51
wrere ringed but, unfortunately, as yet without yielding any foreign
recovery.
In Britain, Shore Larks typically winter on the coast, often on
the seaward side of dunes, where they are to be seen busily feeding,
moving with a slightly crouching, mouse-like action, or sheltering
in the lee of small clumps of vegetation. They feed out on the
mud and sand exposed at low water, retreating before the rising tide
to shingle banks and shell beaches, often in the shelter of sea
walls, where they forage with such species as Greenfinches Carduelis
chloris, Linnets and Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis. Disturbance
frequently drives them inshore on to saltings and arable land
where they mingle with Skylarks and Meadow Pipits Anthus pratensis.
Newly arrived birds are often very approachable, but Hindle (1974)
reported that they become very wild by January. Incidentally,
there is an inland record from north Kent in January 1956 of several
Shore Larks seen by artificial light on a railway track, one dazzled
bird being caught and identified ( Kent Bird Rep. 1956); roosting
on American railroads was recorded in the 19th century (Auk, 12).
Shore Larks are medium-sized larks, about 1 7 cm long, the males
especially being characterised by a striking head and neck pattern.
The forehead, supercilium and throat are a pale yellow contrasting
with the broad black band across the crown, at the sides of which
the elongated feathers give rise to the distinctive black ‘horns’.
A further black band from the bill across the cheeks and curving
down the sides of the throat, with a separate black gorget, completes
the pattern. The ear-coverts are dusky brown, the sides of the breast
pinkish and the underparts mainly white. Indistinct darker brown
Shore Lark and Temminck's Horned Lark studies 505
streaking on the brown upperparts is more marked in the female
(plate 69a). From the back of the crown to the hind neck, and on
the uppertail-coverts, there is a pinkish tinge, most marked in
summer when the yellow on the head tends to fade to whitish. The
tail has a central pair of brown feathers with dark centres, the
remainder being brownish-black with slight white fringes more
prominent in the outer pair where the outer webs also are white.
White fringes relieve the dark brown of the primaries and secon-
daries. The female is duller, the black markings of the head and
neck more restricted, particularly at the base of the upper mandible,
and the pinkish tinge less marked. The ‘horns’, much reduced in the
female, are absent from young birds which have a drabber pattern
relieved by huffish tips to the feathers, giving the upperparts a very
spotted appearance. In winter (plate 68b) the unabraded plumage,
acquired by a complete moult in early autumn, is not so well marked,
since dark feather tips obscure the yellow areas, yellow tips to the
black crown feathers modify their appearance and the back looks
less pinkish (Witherby el al. 1938). Hindle (1974) describes a plum-
age character visible both in the field and in the hand: a double
pale wing-bar, caused by cream tips to the greater and median
coverts, is present during October-December, when the head
pattern is obscured; but later it fades. In flight the Shore Lark
completely folds the wings after each beat, but without any undula-
tion resulting. The contrast between the white underparts and the
dark tail is distinctive.
Some 40 subspecies have been described over the Shore Lark’s
wide range, differing mainly in the distribution of black on the head
and neck, the shade of the yellow areas and the colour of the upper-
parts. That occurring in Britain is E. a. Jlava, the race breeding in
northern Eurasia. There is a solitary record, in September 1953,
from the Outer Hebrides of a North American race of the Horned
Lark E. a. alpestris (British Ornithologists’ Union 1958), and so
there is a possibility that some of the early autumn west coast
records are of this race.
Some southern races of the Shore Lark which have white replacing
the yellow areas approach the plumage pattern of Temminck’s
Horned Lark (plates 69^70). The latter, at 14 cm, is smaller, but
the bill (as in many desert-inhabiting larks) appears heavier. The
facial pattern is black and white, yellow being entirely absent;
the white frontal band is broader; the back is a rather uniform
cinnamon-sandy with the dark primaries and tail strongly con-
trasted. The white of the outer tail-feathers is clearer and more
sharply contrasted than in the Shore Lark. Stanford (1954) described
two males running like pink mice on a pinkish-buff desert: in such
circumstances the bold facial pattern is surprisingly inconspicuous,
Shore Lark and Temminck’s Horned Lark studies
5°6
but when the bird pauses and stands erect, often on some slight
eminence, this and its erect ‘horns’ make it conspicuous from afar
(Bannerman and Priestley 1952). In flight a white trailing edge to
the wings is visible, a feature not present in the Shore Lark.
Voous (i960) denied specific status to Temminck’s Horned Lark
and included it with the Shore Lark in a monotypic genus. It is true
that no geographical overlap of the breeding ranges has been
demonstrated, but Temminck’s is a manifestly different bird in the
field and, in particular, its choice of a desert habitat separates
it from the Shore Lark. Although it avoids bare sand ergs, it is
found in a variety of arid terrain, ranging from flinty hammada to
semi-steppe with a thin cover of Artemisia shrublets, Anabasis articulata,
or sparse perennial grasses. Dry, silty wadi beds are favourite
sites. It breeds in Rio de Oro and southern Morocco, and from the
west Algerian border through Libya, Tunisia and Egypt into the
Sinai Desert, thence north-eastwards through northern Arabia,
Jordan and the Syrian deserts to western Iraq (Hue and Etchecopar
1970). Nelson (1973) placed it as the third commonest breeding lark,
after Lesser Short-toed Calandrella rufescens and Bar-tailed Desert
Ammomanes cincturus, at Azraq, in east Jordan, where the photographs
on plates 6gb-70 were taken.
Shore Larks, on the other hand, prefer mountainous regions above
or beyond the tree-line, seldom below 1,500 metres in south-east
Europe and occurring above 5,000 metres in the Himalayas (Salim
Ali and Ripley 1972). Smith (1965) found them on barren slopes
with unmelted snow at 1,800 metres in the Middle Atlas, but else-
where in Morocco down to 1,400 metres in halfa grass Stipa. In Tur-
key, Gaston (1968) reported flocks and breeding birds in the pasture
zone of the Taurus Mountains with smaller parties on rocky slopes
and screes up to 3,200 metres. To the north, barren open ground is
preferred, whether on the more southerly steppes or on the arctic
tundra of northern Eurasia; in the extreme north they breed on tree-
less plateaux, descending to sandy areas near the coast. Throughout
Fenno-Scandia they favour rather barren areas with low, straggling
cover of creeping birch Betula nana, crowberry Empetrum and reindeer
moss Cladonia rangerinifera and other lichens, often by lake shores and
arctic coastal settlements (Bannerman 1953).
In North America the situation differs. The absence of native
larks has permitted the Horned Lark to colonise widely differing
habitats, from barren arctic shores and gravel ridges, mountain
pastures and sparsely vegetated slopes to prairies with short grass,
farmland, golf courses and the vicinity of dwellings, as well as sandy
and rocky deserts from California southwards (Bent 1963).
In general only the tundra populations migrate, local movements
being usual elsewhere. The picture of migration presented by
Shore Lark and Temminck’s Horned Lark studies
507
Bannerman (1953) raises many unanswered questions. Autumn
passage at Heligoland is reported to be from east to west, yet no
large flocks are recorded in Continental western Europe to the south
and west of Heligoland. On the other hand, Denmark, Germany
and eastern Europe seem to hold a considerable winter population.
One can only speculate about the final destination of the birds
leaving Britain in late March, and the origin of the considerable
numbers leaving Heligoland in the latter half of April is also unclear.
A straggler recovered in Spain had been ringed in Sweden (Saez-
Royuela 1952).
As the winter population of southern Sweden moves north in
April, large flocks arrive from the south. The birds arriving in
Finnmark in late April and early May are thought to travel by a
more easterly route in both spring and autumn. Russian breeding
grounds as far north as Novaya Zemlya are not occupied until late
May. Males arrive first, followed shortly by the females, and they
remain frequently until after the first snows before the return
migration gets under way, from the end of September to mid-
October. The main concentration of south-going, Scandinavian
and Finnmark birds leaves on an easterly heading. Winter flocking,
often at considerable altitudes, is widely reported in southern Asia
and the Middle East, but movements to lower ground seem general
in snowy conditions. Similarly in North America immense flocks are
seen at the approach of winter, with birds from the inhospitable
north moving south towards the more sedentary populations of the
southern states. In spring the former are among the first migrants to
return north.
Temminck’s Horned Lark indulges in local movements only,
doubtless influenced by the ephemeral nature of much of the desert
vegetation. Smith (1965) reported loose flocks of over 100 birds
in south-east Morocco in November.
Shore Larks and Horned Larks forage in more open areas, but
often take food from under or inside plants. A broad spectrum of
vegetable and animal matter is eaten. Fruits of bilberry Vaccinium
are important in northern areas, and weed and grass seeds in autumn
and winter, particularly in snowy conditions. In many areas of
North America immense flocks are reported to invade farmyards,
ranches and even towns in search of grain and other seeds. Tem-
minck’s Horned Lark is similarly omnivorous. Fleshy tips of desert
xerophytes are favoured, and although Meinertzhagen (1954) stated
that grasshoppers (Acrididae) are ignored many other insects and
their larvae are taken. Tightly packed feeding flocks observed in
Morocco w'ere turning over large stones (Smith 1965).
Bent (1963) and Beason and Franks (1974) have given full
descriptions of the calls and songs of Horned Larks which agree
Shore Lark and Temminck’s Horned Lark studies
5°8
substantially with those of Shore Larks. The commonest call is
variously rendered as a clear ‘tseep’, ‘tsee-ree’ or ‘su-weet’, remini-
scent of Yellow Wagtail Motacilla Jlava or Rock Pipit Anthus spinoletta.
A clear ringing call is heard on the breeding grounds. The song,
bearing a family resemblance to the Skylark’s, is of poorer quality,
less well developed, and typically delivered from a stone or other
low eminence. There is also a song-flight in which the bird rises
silently to ioo metres or more, and, while gliding in wide circles,
sings snatches of low warbling song. A recitative type of song is
associated with slow, fluttering wing-beats. Gliding song-flights
are interspersed with short, rapid, vertical fluttering to regain
height, and a silent plummet to earth on closed wings ends the song-
flight, which averages about Q.\ minutes. This aerial song is
associated with courtship, but that delivered on the ground is a
manifestation of territorial behaviour and often follows chases and
fiercely contested fights a few metres above ground. Temminck’s
Horned Larks have similar calls; the song is described as more
disyllabic and less vigorous, but the aerial component is more
marked, and most observers agree that there is no final dive to
earth.
In courtship display, the male Shore Lark struts with body
horizontal, wings drooped and tail spread; the ‘horns’ are raised
and the black gorget displayed while a chittering call is being uttered
with the bill open. Sexual chasing from ground to air is marked. The
female’s invitatory display is somewhat similar, but with the tail
moved from side to side. Courtship feeding has been reported.
Much of the information concerning the breeding cycle derives
from extensive American studies (Bent 1963, Verbeek 1967, Beason
and Franks 1974). Whereas the Shore Lark breeds in rather open,
thinly vegetated ground, often beside a grassy tussock or, more rarely,
on a slightly raised hummock, the Horned Lark additionally nests in
sites which in the Old World would attract Skylarks and Crested
Larks Galerida cristata in farmland, stubbles, fallow, winter-sown
corn and even near houses. The female selects the site and, although
a natural depression is sometimes utilised, it is more usual for her to
excavate, using mainly her bill, a fairly deep nest cavity some 8-9 cm
in diameter. Within the cavity she constructs the nest, rather
loosely built of grasses, small twigs, lichens and fine roots, with
a lining of finer grasses and down of arctic willows Salix, cotton-
grass j Eriophorum, pappi of various Compositae and sometimes a few
feathers or hairs. A great variety of both natural and artificial
materials is incorporated by Horned Larks outside the tundra
regions. The finished nest is about 4 cm deep and averages 6.5 cm
in diameter.
Nests of Temminck’s Horned Lark are basically similar, with
Shore Lark and Temminck's Horned Lark studies 509
modifications imposed by the lack of protection in the open desert.
They tend to be more deeply buried and tucked under the shade of a
small shrub as in plate 69b. A nest in silty desert in northern
Jordan had only minimal shade from a small stone on otherwise
completely bare ground. Soft grass seed-heads figure largely in the
nest linings. An unusual feature of the nests of most desert-dwelling
larks is the presence of a paving or rampart of small stone chips or
flakes of dried mud. This is found almost invariably in nests of
Temminck’s Horned Lark, that in plate 69b being a good example;
the Shore Lark’s nest in plate 69a has a less well developed surround
which includes fragments of peat as well as stones. Other locally
available material is frequently incorporated, particularly by Horned
Larks. The purpose of these structures is variously explained as
giving protection from blown sand and dust and providing shade in
open desert conditions; covering the loose soil dug from the nest
cavity; or merely providing a ramp access to the nest. Beason
and Franks noted that pieces of paving were dropped into the
cavity, apparently to prevent material being blown away, during
nest-building. As nests are frequently sunk deep in the ground, it
may be that the paving helps to shed water and protect against
possible flooding in rainy conditions.
Some Scandinavian and Siberian birds are double-brooded, laying
in the last week of May and at the end of June (but up to three weeks
later in the extreme north of the Siberian range). Eggs of single-
brooded individuals are laid about a fortnight later than the first
of the double-brooded clutches. Clutch size varies from two to
five, commonly three or four, very exceptionally six, and eggs are
laid on consecutive days. Incubation begins on the completion of
the clutch, but sometimes a little sooner in early nests of Horned
Larks. The female alone incubates and, although the male occasion-
ally feeds her on the nest, more usually she slips off to feed herself.
The eggs, which vary widely in colour, are generally greenish-
white, marked with yellowish-brown spots and not uncommonly a
few hair-streaks. Those of Temminck’s Horned Lark have violet
and brick-brown spottings and are often almost impossible to sepa-
rate from the eggs of other ‘desert’ larks ; they average slightly smaller
than those of Shore Larks. Temminck’s lays two or three eggs,
sometimes four, generally in April, but as early as March in the
south. Hatching in northern Jordan was observed in the last few
days of April.
Incubating females closely observed in Illinois (Beason and Franks
1974) left the nest quietly when an observer approached to within
100 metres, but repeated disturbance tended to produce injury
feigning which is also observed when there are small young out of
the nest. Studies of American races indicate an average incubation
510
Shore Lark and Temminck’s Horned Lark studies
period of eleven days. Both parents feed the young, which leave
the nest, often before they can fly, on about the tenth day but,
reportedly, as early as the seventh day in later broods. Similar
data for Temminck’s Horned Lark are lacking. At the very ex-
posed nest in northern Jordan one parent remained constantly
with the young to provide shade from the sun and permitted very
close approach. The incubating bird in plate 70, during a sudden
dust storm, became very agitated, repeatedly leaving the nest or
restlessly moving about on the eggs with fluffed-up feathers and
open bill. Another pair in the same area was watched sharing in the
feeding of large chicks about to fledge from the nest of a Lesser Short-
toed Lark, to the extent of occasionally attempting to drive off the
parents.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am indebted to H. E. Axell, Dr Geoffrey Beven and M. D. England for much
useful information and advice. •
REFERENCES
Balston, R. J., Shepherd, C. W., and Bartlett, E. 1907. Notes on the Birds of
Kent. London.
Bannerman, D. A. 1953. The Birds of the British Isles. Edinburgh and London,
vol 2.
and Priestley, J. 1952. ‘An ornithological journey in Morocco in 1951’.
Ibis, 94: 406-433.
Beason, R. C., and Franks, E. C. 1974. ‘Breeding behavior of the Homed Lark’.
Auk, 91: 65:74.
Bent, A. C. 1963. Life Histories of North American Flycatchers, Larks, Swallows and
their Allies. London (Dover edition).
British Ornithologists’ Union. 1958. ‘British Records Committee: second report’.
Ibis, 100: 299-300.
1 97 1 . The Status of Birds in Britain and Ireland. Oxford.
Dementiev, G. P., and Gladkov, N. A. 1954. Ptitsy Sovetskogo Soyuza [Birds of
the Soviet Union]. Moscow, vol 5.
Gaston, A. J. 1968. ‘Birds of the Ala Dagh Mountains, Turkey’. Ibis, no: 17-26.
Godfrey, W. E. 1966. The Birds of Canada. Ottawa.
Hindle, C. H. 1974. ‘The Shore Lark in Kent’. Kent Bird Rep., 21 : 94-97.
Hue, F., and Etchecopar, R.-D. 1970. Les Oiseaux du Proche et du Moyen Orient.
Paris.
Meinertzhagen, R. 1954. Birds of Arabia. Edinburgh and London.
Nelson, B. 1973. Azraq Desert Oasis. London.
Pashley, H. N. 1925. Notes on the Birds of Cley, Norfolk. London.
Saez-Royuela, R. 1952. ‘Captura en Espana de Eremophila alpestris Jlava 1788,
anillada en Suecia’. Bol. Soc. Esp. Hist, nat., Secc. Biol., 50: 153- 154.
Salim Ali and Ripley, S. D. 1972. Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan.
London, vol 5.
Smith, K. D. 1965. ‘On the birds of Morocco’. Ibis, 107: 493-526.
Stanford, J. K. 1954. ‘A survey of the ornithology of northern Libya’. Ibis, 96:
449-473-
Vaurie, C. 1959. The Birds of the Palearctic Fauna: Passeriformes. London.
Shore Lark and Temminck's Homed Lark studies 5 1 1
Verbeek, N. A. M. 1967. ‘Breeding biology and ecology of the Horned Lark in
alpine tundra’. Wilson Bull., 79: 208-218.
Voous, K. H. i960. Atlas of European Birds. London.
Watson, A. 1973- Shore Larks summering and possibly breeding in Scotland’.
Brit. Birds, 66: 505-508.
Witherby, H. F., et al. 1938. The Handbook of British Birds. London, vol 1.
Wood, J . D. 1952. ‘Studies of some species rarely photographed. XXXVII. The
Shore-lark’. Brit. Birds, 45: 97, plates 21-23.
G. R. Shannon , Oak Tree House , Hythe Road, Willesborough, Ashford, Kent
Notes
Hen Harriers’ hunting behaviour in south-west Scotland
Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus are generally regarded as solitary hunters.
For example, J. J. and F. C. Craighead (1956, Hawks, Owls and
Wildlife ) found that in winter Marsh Hawks C. c. hudsonius had
individual hunting ranges from 30-40 acres (12-16 hectares) to one
square mile (259 hectares) or more. In the winter of 1973/74 I
noticed that Hen Harriers were hunting at times in loose groups in
two areas (a and b) in south-west Scotland, and I subsequently
made over 35 hours’ of observations there between 18th November
1973 and 17th February 1974.
Area A (85 hectares) consisted of two kale fields bordering a wide
expanse of common rushes and rough pasture with scattered whin
bushes growing on the drier ground. A small burn intersects the
rushes, flowing into and out of a freshwater marsh. Area b (27
hectares) consisted of two kale fields separated by a pasture field;
all three had been rough marginal land before they were drained in
1 972-73. They were bordered to the south by a wide expanse of
low-lying moorland and to the north and east by two minor roads.
In winter grain was spread for feeding Pheasants Phasianus colchicus,
and the fields in both areas were systematically grazed by domestic
animals.
Each area lay about 1.6 km from the harriers’ communal roost.
Only those observations made between one hour after sunrise and
one hour before sunset are considered here, because some harriers
frequently hunted over these areas on their way from and to their roost.
On seven dates I saw two to five harriers hunting together in
areas a and b (table 1). On other occasions only one was present.
They were seen to attack Pheasants, Curlews Numenius arquata and
Woodpigeons Columba palumbus without success. As they approached
these birds, the harriers put on a burst of speed and attempted
to take them on the ground or just as they flew up ahead. A harrier
beating near ducks usually caused them to fly up, circle and land
512
Notes
Table i. Sightings of two or more Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus
hunting together in areas a and b, south-west Scotland,
winter 1973/74
Date
Area
Males
‘Ringtails’
TOTAL
18 Nov 1973
B
I
2
3
24 Nov 1973
B
I
I
2
1 Jan 1974
A
I
2
3
5 Jan 1974
A
3
2
5
6 Jan 1974
A
I
2
3
19 Jan 1974
A
3
0
3
20 Jan 1974
A
I
I
2
again. When the harriers flew near flocks of waders, gulls or pas-
serines, these would fly up in apparent panic to settle again quickly
once the predator had passed; once a Lapwing Vanellus vanellus
swooped on a ‘ringtail’. Pounces by the harriers into the kale fields
were frequent and sometimes sustained, the raptor hovering
intently, with talons dangling. Sometimes harriers landed in or
on top of the kale. On one occasion a ‘ringtail’ dropped six times
in the same spot until a Blackbird Tvrdus merula flew away from
below it; the harrier did not give chase. Only once was a Hen
Harrier (a male) seen to be successful in capturing a Blackbird,
and this was after four pounces into the kale. Carrion Crows Corvus
corone sometimes pestered the harriers and on three occasions forced
one to abandon its hunting, making it fly out of the area (twice)
or land on the ground (once).
Sometimes the harriers hunted in close association, leading to
occasional interactions between them when they swooped on each
other; once two males came together and touched talons. On 1st
January 1974, in area a, a male and a ‘ringtail’ had a particularly
close association, as follows :
1 1. 1 5 hours Male hunting kale field. Put up about 50 Woodpigeons, twisting and
turning after one but without success. Some feral pigeons C. livia also flew up;
male chased one with white wings, without success.
n.iy hours Male joined by ‘ringtail’; both hunted rushes together, ‘ringtail’
following male. ‘Ringtail’ hovered over cock Pheasant which stretched neck and
jabbed with beak; ‘ringtail’ flew away and male landed in rough grass near Phea-
sant.
1 1. 1 9 hours ‘Ringtail’ pounced into rough grass at burn side near male. Flew
up half a metre or o with fairly large black object (rat?) in talons and dropped
it, hovering above it. Prey animal jumped up at harrier which continued to drop
on it, holding it in talons, flying up and dropping it again. Animal continued
to jump up at harrier when free. Male flew over and landed near ‘ringtail’,
which flew closer to male with prey in talons and landed, dropping prey. This
must have escaped, for male rose quickly, dived into rushes once and then flew
away; ‘ringtail’ remained a few moments, then hunted kale field, landing in
rushes in heavy rain at 1 1 .30.
Plate 68. Winter-plumage Shore l.ark Eremophita alpestris nibbling seeds of
glasswort Salicornia, and typical habitat of 'strip' saltings between areas of
sea-buckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides, Gibraltar Point, Lincolnshire, December 1972
(photos: J. B. and S. Bottomley) (pages 502-51 1). Up to too have occurred here
Plate 69. Above, female Shore Lark Eremophila alpestris incubating, Varanger
Fjord, Norway, June 1972 {photo: Eric Soothill ): note collection of small stones
and pieces of dry peat in front of nest. Below, the smaller Temminck’s Horned
Lark E. bilopha, Jordan, April 1965 {photo: Eric Hosking) (pages 506, 508-509)
Plate 70. Temminck’s Horned Larks with two young at a very exposed nest,
also Jordan, April 1965 ( photos : Eric Hoskins;): nests are usually tucked under
the shade of a stone or desert shrub, as in plate 69b, which also shows a good
example of the typical ‘paving’ of small stone chips round the cavity (page 509
ysssssZr tip**
Pt *>
rrr ^TtJL
It
I5r
Plate 71. North American Horned Larks Eremophila alpestris at different nests
with young, Utah ( photos : Allan D. Crnickshank) . This is the only lark to have
colonised America, where it has become adapted to a great variety of habitats,
from arctic tundra south to Mexico and in the Colombian Andes (pages 502, 506)
Notes
5X3
1 1.98 hours ‘Ringtail’ up hunting kale field again; flew across rushes and put male
off fence post. Male landed in rushes and ‘ringtail’ landed on fence post at 1 1 .40,
later flying to land in rushes near male.
11.49 hours Male up hunting rushes joined by second ‘ringtail’. Male flew across
and swooped on first ‘ringtail’ in rushes. All three harriers circled each other,
both ‘ringtails’ fluttering together, and at 11.51 landed in rushes in heavy rain
quite near each other.
Rev Edward A. Armstrong (1943, The Way Birds Live) cited a
record of a Marsh Hawk having a ‘cat and mouse game’, similar to
that above, with a ‘lark’ (presumably a Horned Lark Eremophila
alpestris ) which it flew up with and dropped seven or eight times,
each time seizing the lark as it tried to flutter away.
The harriers apparently rested between periods of hunting by
dropping into the rushes, landing on fence posts or landing on or
in the kale. These pauses lasted from less than one minute up to
25 minutes (mean, ten minutes). Weather conditions may have
affected hunting periods : for example, once in heavy rain and squally
conditions a male landed three times in 60 minutes and was inactive
for 38 of those minutes, while on another occasion a male landed in
cloudy, dry weather twice in 60 minutes, during which it was in-
active for 35 minutes. J. J. and F. C. Craighead (op. cit.) found that
57% the harriers’ time was spent on the ground in bad weather.
Most of the kale at area b had been eaten by sheep by the end of
December 1973, and most at area a by cattle by the beginning of
February. The harriers’ visits then became increasingly infrequent,
only one being present or none at all. R. C. Dickson
j Galloway Place , West Freugh, by Stranraer , Wigtownshire
Large spring roost of Whimbrels in Bridgwater Bay In late
April and early May each year since 1972, marked evening move-
ments of Whimbrels Numenius phaeopus have been seen by myself
and many other observers in the Bridgwater Bay National Nature
Reserve, Somerset. Small and large flocks, sometimes totalling many
hundreds, have been watched flying out to Stert Island to roost.
This small island, though no more than a kilometre west of Burn-
ham-on-Sea, is difficult to reach, being separated from the main-
land by a very strong tide race with a rise and fall of about twelve
metres. At low tide it is surrounded by precariously soft mud banks.
The main evening movements (all times BST) during the three
years are set out in the table overleaf; on 6th and 7th May 1974
birds were still arriving at the close of observations. The peak num-
bers are believed to be unprecedented anywhere in Britain.
The island is used solely as a roosting place for a relatively short
period in spring, with no comparable autumn gatherings noted.
It is thought that during the daytime the Whimbrels disperse widely
over the inland levels to feed, returning to the roost each evening.
Notes
5H
Date
Period of
observation
Main movement
Total
numbers
6 May 1972
19.20-20.50
19.45-20.45
I>415
25 April 1973
19.25-20.10
H9
1 May 1973
19.23-21.00
From 20.10
1 >978
5 May 1973
19. IO-21. 20
From 20.45
1 >972
23 April 1974
20.05-20.40
24
30 April 1974
20.00-20.40
236
3 May 1974
19.50-20.00
979
6 May 1974
20.04-21.10
3i5 +
7 May 1974
20.19-21.25
From 20.45
467 +
Fox' example, J. A. McGeoch noted 155 flying along the Brue valley
towards Stert Island during 19.00-21.00 hours BST on 6th May 1972
(. Somerset Birds 1972: 36).
Incidentally, these large roosting flocks seldom give the well-
known tittering calls in flight but sometimes utter bubbling cries
like the song of Curlews N. arquata. Bernard King ( in litt.) also
noted these bubbling calls from about 100 Whimbrels which settled
briefly at Cheddar Reservoir, Somerset, in the evening of 3rd May
1953 before dispersing in the direction of the coast {Brit. Birds,
46:411). Brian E. Slade
40 Church House Road , Berrow, Burnham-on-Sea , Somerset ta8 2NQ,
Abnormal numbers of Little Gulls in Ireland in summer
Unprecedented numbers of Little Gulls Larus minutus were recorded
in Co. Wicklow in January and February 1974 {Brit. Birds, 67: 166-
167). Another influx followed southerly gales on 10th May, and from
19th May until 15th June between 44 and 52 were regularly present
on the same stretch of coast, with the highest count on 12th June.
Numbers gradually declined until the last three on 4th August.
Apart from one or two adults at first, all were in their first year.
The birds invariably frequented a broad saltmarsh channel at both
high and low tides, whereas those in January and February were
always found along the tideline. R. F. Ruttledge
Doon, Newcastle, Greystones, Co. Wicklow
A paper on the recent increase of the Little Gull in both Britain
and Ireland is in pi'eparation. Eds
Male Cuckoo using plant material in display On 19th May, at
Rostherne Mere National Nature Reserve, Cheshire, I saw two
Cuckoos Cuculus canorus flying across a pasture field. One bird, which
seemed by its subsequent behaviour to be the male, was carrying a
flowering head of common reed Phragmites communis. Both alighted
some five metres apart on the top of a thorn hedge. The male began
Notes
5*5
shaking the reed head vigorously, causing it to break into smaller
pieces; at the same time he assumed a ‘begging’ posture in
which the body was lowered, the wings partly opened and the tail
raised to a nearly vertical position and fanned out. He then flew to a
nearby post where, with the reed head now much smaller, the same
ritual was repeated. The female then flew a little further along
the hedge, and the male dropped the reed head and followed her,
alighting on a farm gate. At first he squatted parallel with the
top rail, but then he turned across it and began to repeat the
previous display without the reed head. The female flew past him
towards the reed-beds on the edge of the mere, and he followed her
until lost from sight. Neither bird was heard to call during the
display, though calling had been heard for long periods prior to
the observation.
This display has obvious parallels in the courtship rituals of
some non-parasitic species in which nest material is offered by the
male to the female, but its use by a parasitic species appears
incongruous. Ronald Harrison
Speyside, 8 St Albans Crescent, Altrincham, Cheshire
During the afternoon of 27th May 1974, at Nanquidno, St Just,
Cornwall, I witnessed some interesting behaviour by a male Cuckoo.
It was perched on barbed wire, close to but facing in the opposite
direction from a hepatic female, and, with rather slow and purpose-
ful movements, it bowed a little to and iro. d hen three times it flew
to an adjacent field where it gathered bents and dead grasses in
its bill; each time it returned and ‘presented’ these to its mate
while again performing the bowing. On each occasion, after a minute
or so, it slightly opened its bill, thus allowing the material gradu-
ally to fall away from its mouth. Soon afterwards both birds departed
to the nearby fields and were not seen again.
Maurice Tibbies, who is conducting researches on Cuckoo be-
haviour, has informed me (in lilt.) that he has not seen this type of
display, nor does he know of it in the extensive literature at his
disposal. Bernard King
Gull Cry, g Park Road, Newlyn, Cornwall
Treecreepers apparently feeding on fat In early January I974>
in my garden at Jordanhill, Glasgow, I daubed some beef dripping
fat (after melting it) on the trunk of a sycamore tree in the hope of
attracting a Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major which had
been present for a few days. The fat was spread from about shoulder
to waist height, on one side of the tree only. By mid-January two
Treecreepers Certhia familiaris were visiting the garden daily,
mostly at dusk. They invariably gravitated to the fat-daubed area
Notes
5l6
on the sycamore, and I concluded that they were consuming the fat.
They did this surreptitiously when the regular Blue Tits Parus
caemleus and Great Tits P. major were not feeding there. Their
visits ceased in mid-March, after which they apparently vacated
the area. The woodpecker was not seen to take the fat at all.
Richard S. Greenwood
7 Jordanhill Crescent, Glasgow g 1 3 1 un
Leaf-shaking by Dunnock On 25th November 1973, in a rose
bed in my garden at Paisley, Renfrewshire, I saw a Dunnock
Prunella modularis with a withered leaf of Virginia creeper Partheno-
cissus in its bill. The Dunnock was hopping about, vigorously shak-
ing the leaf all around just as though, having impaled it, the bird
was desperately trying to throw it off. A view through binoculars
showed, however, that the leaf was gripped by the bill and not
impaled on it. This leaf-shaking continued for fully a minute before
the Dunnock threw the leaf down. It was hopping forward,
apparently to seize it again, when a male Blackbird Turdus merula
swooped down and snatched it, but immediately lost interest. The
Dunnock, meanwhile, hopped about in an agitated way, but
shortly subsided into its normal, undemonstrative search for food,
flicking the covering of dead leaves aside to get at the soil under-
neath. Some distance away the Blackbird searched for food in
exactly the same way.
On examination, the original leaf was found to be split all over.
Of 15 other Virginia creeper leaves picked up from around the site,
ten had no breaks at all, three had one or two obvious holes and
two had splits, but not at all so many as the Dunnock’s leaf. Attempts
to reproduce the split appearance, simulating the shaking treatment
with a pair of tweezers, were inconclusive. Certainly, if the leaf
splits were attributable to the flailing by the Dunnock, then the
performance must have been going on for some minutes before my
discovery of it.
It would have been interesting to witness the onset of this piece
of apparently aggressive behaviour on the part of a bird normally
unobtrusive in habits. No other Dunnock was in the vicinity at the
time and there appeared to be no obvious explanation for the be-
haviour. Perhaps some aggressive release had simply been triggered
by the leaf-flicking action while the Dunnock searched for food. In
his book A Study of Blackbirds (1958) Dr D. W. Snow referred to leaf-
brandishing by Blackbirds, and it may not be without relevance
that it was a Blackbird which pounced at the Dunnock’s leaf and
that both birds had the habit of flicking leaves aside while feeding.
R. G. Caldow
63 Southwold Road, Paisley, Renfrewshire pai 3AL
Notes
5i7
Both sexes of the Serin in song In late April and early May 1973,
I watched several pairs of Serins SeTinus sennus in different parts
of Provence, France. In the case of one pair watched almost daily
in Arles, and of two pairs (probably with adjacent territories)
near the Pont du Gard, I saw and heard both sexes in full song. The
breeding area in Arles was a small ornamental garden close to the
city centre, with many tall trees (some over 30 metres high) over
lawns and flower beds. At the Pont du Gard, the birds were in dense
scrub three to five metres high bordering the River Gard, with
occasional tall trees reaching 10-15 metres serving as song-posts.
Judging from the birds’ behaviour, it is doubtful if nest-building
had started.
The sexes were easily separable, allowing a watch to be kept on
both individuals, often for several minutes at a time. Both male
and female of each pair were seen and heard producing the full
jangling run of song while perched on song-posts in the treetops,
and both sexes were seen in song-flights similar to those of Green-
finches Carduelis chloris, with exaggerated and slow wing-beats.
Song-flights were performed much more often by males. When the
male was song-flighting, or some distance away, the females sang
more readily, but in one of the Pont du Gard pairs the birds sang
simultaneously on several occasions while perched on the same dead
twig.
Professor W. H. Thorpe, writing in A New Dictionary of Birds
(1964), considers song from female birds to be exceptional, though it
has been recorded from, among others, the Song Sparrow Melospiza
melodia early in the season, female Robins Erithacus rubecula holding
winter territories, and the Orange-billed Sparrow Arremon aurantii-
rostris while incubating. In general, Professor Thorpe considers that
female song is less likely the more striking the sexual dimorphism
(save in those cases where the female has the dominant role in
courtship display). Several records of singing female Chaffinches
Fringilla coelebs noted in Rev E. A. Armstrong’s book Bird Display
(1942) were attributed to hormonally aberrant birds. Despite the
fact that female domestic Canaries S. canarius can be made to develop
typical male song by male sex hormone injections, it seems unlikely
that any hormone imbalance was the major factor involved in any
of the three cases reported above. J. J. M. Flegg
British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire HP23 5NR
Letters
Eye colour of the Hen Harrier D. I. M. Wallace’s remarks (Brit.
Birds, 65 : 358-359) on the eye colour of an immature of the American
subspecies of the Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus hudsonius at Cley,
Letters
5l8
Norfolk (see Brit. Birds , 64: 537-542), were confusing and to a
certain extent incorrect. I quote: . R. A. Richardson wrote to
point out that such a bird could not have had yellow irides since
these are marks of adulthood in harriers. Subsequent correspondence
with E. Balfour through R.A.R. confirmed that, in the closely
related Hen Harrier C. c. cyaneus, only adult males have bright yellow
irides’ (my italics). With regard to the European form, however,
Mr Balfour had already stated elsewhere ( Bird Study , 17: 47) that
‘All males, whether in full adult plumage or in one-year-old
sub-adult plumage, had bright yellow irides’; in females the iris
colour becomes bright yellow when six to seven years old. He also
mentioned that F. Hamerstrom had published similar observations
on eye colour in the American race ( Inland Bird Banding Association
News, 40: 43-44). In my opinion, at least some males may already
have developed yellow or yellowish irides by their first winter.
G. J. Oreel
Instituut voor Taxonomische Zoologie ( Zoologisch Museum ), Plant age
Middenlaan 53, Amsterdam- 100 4, Netherlands
I accept Mr Oreel’s correction. I have, however, already pointed
to the lack of certainty over the eye colour of the Cley individual.
Furthermore, at the time when this was noted (by one observer) as
yellow, the bird was only five to six months old — assuming that it
had hatched in June or July— and in the early part of its first winter.
It is not clear from Mr Balfour’s note to what extent his observations
apply to birds at that age, and I feel that further research is needed
on this point. I should also mention that the identification of the
Cley harrier is now hotly disputed. Since, apparently, Hen Harriers
can produce young with rufous underparts, the original record and
two later claims are under review. D. I. M. Wallace
g Woodhill Rise, Heads Lane, Hessle, Hull hu 1 3 ohz
House Martins roosting in reed-beds I was interested in the
note by N. E. G. Elms {Brit. Birds, 65: 126) on House Martins
Delichon urbica roosting in reed-beds. The accompanying editoral
comment mentioned the doubts raised by F. Tischler and H.
Ringleben {Orn. Monatsber., 44: 117, 159-160) of the validity of the
statement by F. Tantow (1936, Das Vogellebender Niederelbe, page 152)
that House Martins regularly roost overnight in reeds. Recent
evidence also suggests that Tantow was mistaken. During 1968-72,
in July, August and September, four ringers, including myself,
trapped nearly 6,500 Swallows Hirundo rustica and 500 Sand Martins
Riparia riparia, but not a single House Martin, in the reed-beds of the
Elbe around Hamburg and also at Stockte, the place mentioned
by Tantow. It is true that towards dusk at Stockte House Martins
Letters
5X9
may join in the great communal flights of Swallows and Sand
Martins over the reed-beds and nearby houses, and this might have
led to the conclusion that the House Martins then dropped into the
reeds with the other hirundines. Wolfgang Harms
75-7 Kraichtal 4 , Heilbronner Strasse 58, West Germany
Reviews
The Seabirds of Britain and Ireland. By S. Cramp, W. R. P.
Bourne and D. Saunders. Collins, London, 287 pages ;
four colour and eight black-and-white plates; 32 maps, line-
drawings. £3.50.
This long-awaited book gives an excellent survey of British sea-
birds, in both a national and an international setting. Most of the
well-written text is taken up with accounts of individual species, but
there are also good short surveys of the biology of seabirds and the
threats to their well-being. The book is tastefully illustrated by a
good selection of black-and-white photographs and line-drawings;
also four mediocre colour plates by Robert Gillmor. Twenty-seven
of the 32 maps (drawn by Crispin Fisher) depict the ranges and
colonies of the British seabirds. It is a pity that size differences of
colonies could not have been more clearly brought out, as in some
maps with overlapping red dots it is difficult to decide what order
of magnitude is meant. I checked details about the species I know
best, the Puffin, and noted the fallacy that the young Puffin is
deserted for eight days prior to fledging; this was disproved by
Richard Perry as long ago as 1948. There are also some discrepancies
between the table of colonies and those plotted on the map: for
example, the Rathlin and Caernarvonshire colonies are omitted
from the map. However, this is a generally well-produced book
which deserves a place in every ornithologist’s library.
Nonetheless, a book of this sort deserves a deeper analysis, as it
will be taken as the authoritative account of British seabirds. We
needed a far more detailed report on Operation Seafarer. The
original data, which were mostly collected in 1969, have been
closeted away while we awaited this report, and it is disappointing
to find that these analyses cannot be used for any serious compari-
sons with future counts. Workers will have to go back to the original
data; nothing would have been lost if detailed summaries (even if
cyclostvled), species-by-species, had been published years ago, even
if only as an incentive for people to prove them wrong. During
‘Seafarer’ no attempts were made to check counts — either within
or between seasons — so we have no idea of their accuracy. A repeat
survey, which admittedly suffers from some of the same drawbacks,
520
Reviews
of some Shetland colonies in 1974 has produced counts very different
from the ‘Seafarer’ ones. Do these differences indicate changes in the
populations or merely differences due to observer or season? We
shall probably never know. The ‘Seafarer’ distribution data will
be invaluable for the future but I have my doubts concerning the
actual counts. It might have been better just to have given the actual
totals of birds counted and not made any adjustments, such as
changing Guillemot bird totals to pairs. Also, why rank species from
common to rare, especially when in some gulls the largest colonies
were inland and so were omitted? I would have thought it better
to have excluded Common and Black-headed Gulls from the species
covered and to have enlarged some other sections.
The presentation of the results in such an obviously popular and
well-produced form might be justified, as the proceeds from the sale
of this book are to be used for further research on seabirds. The
present text illustrates the difficulties involved in an overall census.
The next effort might more profitably concentrate on properly
replicating counts at the 20 or so largest colonies. The errors in the
Operation Seafarer ‘guestimates’ for the difficult species at some of
these are possibly so great and, what is far worse, entirely unknown,
that they swamp the accurate counts at the far more numerous
small colonies. Indeed, one could well forget about much of the
coastline of Britain and Ireland and still get totals as accurate as we
now have. The authors are rightly proud of the achievements but
may be optimistic in thinking that a repeat ‘Seafarer’ would
probably enable changes of the order of 10 per cent to be detected
for most of the 1 7 species where a fairly high degree of accuracy was
obtained, and almost certainly of 20 per cent for all of these. Despite
these criticisms of the numerical data, the distribution maps are the
best available for Britain and Ireland, and the book can be used
with confidence by ornithologists wanting to know the principal
sites for British seabirds. M. P. Harris
Flight Identification of European Raptors. By R. F. Porter,
Ian Willis, Steen Christensen and Bent Pors Nielsen. T. &
A. D. Poyser, Berkhamsted, 1974. 184 pages; 176 black-and-
white photographs; 78 detailed line-drawings, 41 vignettes.
£4.80.
Few ornithological endeavours have attracted as much discussion as
raptor identification. The subject species are not only splendid
creatures but are also increasingly precious. In the battle to turn
the evil eye still so often put upon them, the basis of each conser-
vation success is the precise observation of certainly identified
birds. For all raptors, however, their mobility and the variability
of plumage and silhouette never make this easy. Happily, in 1968
Reviews
52i
a chance meeting between Danish and English enthusiasts watching
the mass migrations of raptors at the Bosphorus prompted the most
intensive research on their flight identification ever attempted.
From many notes, sketches and photographs came first a series of
notable papers in this journal (Brit. Birds , vols 64-66) and now
their final combined publication in this remarkable book.
For the more experienced observer, here is a pleasing, slim vol-
ume that contains the most expert comment on and most accurate
illustrations of flying raptors ever assembled. Furthermore, it is
already evident that the majority of the field-characters will stand
the test of time. In producing the book, the authors have taken the
opportunity to adopt a more convenient order of species and to
include revisions, most notably in the case of Spotted and Lesser
Spotted Eagles. They have also added to both the line and photo-
graphic illustrations. I am particularly taken with the new series of
vignettes by Ian Willis. These figure every species in action and do
much to breathe life into the necessarily more disciplined drawings
that show structure and plumage pattern. Another new feature is a
summary of the legal status of all raptors (including owls) in Europe.
This will be useful to any enthusiast discussing the protection of
birds of prey while abroad.
The authors and their helpers deserve to see a very wide sale
for their book in the several communities where birds of prey are
an issue of interest or emotion. Its translation and export to other
European countries is also merited D. I. M. Wallace
The Bird-watchers’ Book. Edited by John Gooders. David &
Charles, Newton Abbot, 1974. 173 pages, including 32 photo-
graphs. £2.95.
This is intended as the first of a series of annuals which will publish,
in a form attractive and accessible to the average birdwatcher,
items by selected contributors on recent events or discoveries in
birdwatching, research and conservation. The idea is good. There
is an enormous amount going on: studies of individual species or
bird communities; expeditions to remote or inaccessible places
with interesting and often important bird populations; conser-
vation work through the law courts, the oil conference or the
planner’s office; and, by no means least, the unsophisticated
business of looking at and enjoying birds for its own sake. Involved
in all this activity, there are a small but rapidly growing number
of professionals and perhaps 10,000 amateurs who are adding in
various ways to ornithological knowledge. At least 200,000 more
people also like watching birds and all of us enjoy reading about
them.
The 14 contributors are all well-known ornithologists and the
522
Reviews
range of material covered is fairly good, examining the habits of
such different animals as Bullfinches, bowerbirds and birdwatchers,
taking us to Spitzbergen and to Selborne and ranging from Jurassic
fossils to modern farming. None of the pieces contains any new
information but, as most of it is unlikely to have percolated through
to the great majority of birdwatchers, that does not matter.
Unfortunately, only about half of the contributors write with the
sort of economic and attractive style that would do justice to this
type of presentation. More vigorous editing or rewriting by authors
would have raised the standard. The photographs are particularly
disappointing. Often without merit either on artistic grounds or
as an aid to identification, they are also poorly printed.
These criticisms apart, the basic idea is good and the outcome
is not unsuccessful. With this year’s experience to go on, next year’s
edition ought to be a wholly entertaining contribution to bird-
watchers’wet-weather reading. J. H. Andrews
Avifaune de Bretagne. By Yves Brien. Societe pour I’Etude de
la Nature en Bretagne, Brest, 1973. 187 pages; 18 plates;
66 maps. No price given.
This work is based on the results of a study, mainly in 1970 and
1971, of the numbers and status of birds in Brittany. An introduction
explains the aims and methods used. This is followed by five sec-
tions dealing with the Baie d’Audierne, censuses of coastal sites,
of wintering areas, and of inland breeding sites, and general con-
clusions. Audierne Bay, one of the most important habitats in Brit-
tany, is fully described and its breeding and wintering species listed
with numbers. Man’s influence on the area, including increased
hunting, is discussed and protection measures are suggested.
The largest section of the book deals with coastal sites and
covers 83 pages of text and 22 maps. Brittany holds, notably, all
of France’s Atlantic Manx Shearwaters, Fulmars, Gannets, Eiders,
Ringed Plovers, Kittiwakes, Arctic and Roseate Terns, Razorbills,
Guillemots and Puffins. The census of wintering zones includes a
map of the main areas, both coastal and inland, and the figures for
December/January 1968/69-1970/71 are tabulated for each of the
most numerous species of wildfowl and waders. Again the relative
importance of each major site is stated and conservation measures
are proposed.
The ecology and the most interesting bird species of eight typical
inland breeding sites are discussed: all are threatened with develop-
ment and urgent protection measures are recommended. The
author gives extra space to rare species or those restricted to parti-
cular habitats. (There is one striking omission: the Fan-tailed
Warbler, listed as very rare on page 156, is, unlike other species of
Reviews
523
similar status, mentioned nowhere else in the book.) His conclusion
that Brittany’s avifauna depends largely on the safeguarding of
coastal environments and wetlands, though perhaps inevitable,
seems a slight oversimplification.
The work is written in simple, non-technical language, the
tables are clearly set out, and the maps, each occupying a complete
page, are easy to refer to. A large separate map of Brittany (scale
1 : 250,000), which comes with the book, effectively summarises the
study results. For the ornithologist interested in distribution,
populations or conservation it will naturally hold some attraction,
while for those visiting Brittany it will be of considerable value, even
though bulky and not easy to carry about. The photographs are good
but are poorly printed and, apart from the habitat shots, add little
to the book.
Although not comprehensive and rather limited by the short
time-span of the study, which may have led to inaccuracies, this is
nevertheless an admirable publication. D. A. Christie
Catalogus Faunae Jugoslaviae. IV/3. Aves. By S. D. Matvejev
and V. F. Vasic, Council of Academic Sciences of the Federal
Socialist Republic of Yugoslavia. Slovenian Academy of
Sciences and Arts, Ljubljana, 1973. 120 pages; 2 maps.
Obtainable from Slovenska Akademija znanosti in umet-
nosti Biblioteka, Ljubljana, Novi trg 3, Yugoslavia. 15 dinars.
This list of the birds of Yugoslavia is designed to be (and is) readily
understandable to the English reader. In all, 376 species are listed,
plus 15 of doubtful authenticity. It is possible to determine the
month-by-month occurrence of each bird, where it occurs within
the Federal Republic, and whether or not it breeds. About 256
species are believed to breed regularly in Yugoslavia at the present
time. Known former breeders believed now to be extinct, with their
probable dates of last breeding, are White Pelican (1907), Mute
Swan (1965), Crane (1965), Great Bustard (1949), Snipe (1947),
Curlew (1916) and Black- winged Stilt (1964). The Bearded Tit is
described as ‘In the process of extinction in Yugoslavia’. The
Dalmation Pelican is extinct in Dalmatia but hangs on farther south
in Yugoslavia, about 25 pairs still attempting to nest on Lake
Skadar in Montenegro.
Subspecies are dealt with in the same detail as full species: thus
the seven races of the Reed Bunting known to have occurred in
Yugoslavia take up most of one page! The tendency to ‘split’ also
means that the really keen lister can see one more woodpecker in
Yugoslavia than is listed in the Field Guide. Dr Matvejev regards
Lilford’s Woodpecker Dendrocopos lilfordi as a full species, and not
merely as a race of the White-backed Woodpecker D. leucotos. His
524 Reviews
distributions for the two forms appear to indicate that they breed
sympatrically in the Posav area of Bosnia.
Like much else in Yugoslavia, the avifauna is a curious mixture.
At higher altitudes in the south of the country nest such ‘northern’
species as the Goosander, Ural Owl and Three-toed Woodpecker.
And yet only a few kilometres away, down by the Dalmatian coast,
are found ‘southerners’ like Red-rumped Swallows, Olive-tree
Warblers and Spanish Sparrows. I found this excellent check-list
most helpful during a fortnight in southern Montenegro.
Jeffery Boswall
ALSO RECEIVED
Animals and their Colours. By Michael and Patricia Fogden. Peter Lowe, London,
1974- £3-50.
Aviary Birds in Colour. By Frank Woolham, illustrated by Dennis Avon and Tony
Tilford. Blandford, London. 1974, £2.25.
Beginner's Guide to Bird Watching. By Reg Harrison. Pelham Books, London, 1974.
£3-00.
Best in Show: Breeding and Exhibiting Budgerigars. By Gerald S. Binks. Ebury Press
and Pelham Books, London, 1974. £3.25.
Biological Mechanisms of Attachment. By W. Nachtigall. Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg and New York, 1974. DM 75.00.
Birds of Australia. By J. D. Macdonald. Witherby, London, 1974. £11.00.
Birds of the Tropics. By John A. Burton. Orbis, London, 1973. £2.50.
Birds of the West Indies. By James Bond. Fourth (revised and enlarged) edition.
Collins, London, 1974. £2.95.
Birds of the Yorkshire Coast. By Richard Vaughan. Hendon Publishing Co., Nelson,
Lancashire, 1974. Hardback £1.70, paperback £ 1.20 .
Der Haubentaucher. By Manfred Melde. Die Neue Brehm-Bticherei, A. Ziemsen
Verlag, Wittenberg Lutherstadt, 1973. 9.60 M.
Die Grauammer. By Lutz Gliemann. Die Neue Brehm-Biicherei, 1973. 8.60 M.
Eulen. By Siegfried Eck and Horst Busse. Die Neue Brehm-Biicherei, 1974. 18.20 M.
Guide des Arbres el Arbustes d' Europe. By A. Quartier and P. Bauer-Bovet. Delachaux
et Niestl6, Neuchatel, 1973. Fr 28.00.
How to Attract, House and Feed Birds. By Walter E. Schutz. Collier Macmillan,
London, 1974. £1.25.
Life on the Sea Shore. By John Barrett. Collins, London, 1974. £1.95.
New Zealand Water Birds. By Elaine Power. Collins, Auckland and London, 1 974.
£4-25-
Population Ecology of Migratory Birds. Wildlife Research Report no. 2, Bureau of
Sport, Fisheries and Wildlife, Washington, DC, 1972. No price given.
The Concise Encyclopedia of Birds. By Bertel Bruun, illustrated by Paul Singer.
Octopus Books, London, 1974. £2.25.
The Life of the Hummingbird. By Alexander F. Skutch, illustrated by Arthur B.
Singer. Octopus Books, London, 1974. £3.95.
The Mitchell Beazley Atlas of World Wildlife. Mitchell Beazley, London, 1974. £9.50.
The Sea and the Ice. By Louis J. Halle. Michael Joseph, London, 1974. £4-50.
Woodlands. By William Condry. Collins, London, 1974. £1.95.
News and comment Robert Hudson
The Great Oystercatcher Robbery For the second successive winter the
Ministry of Agriculture and the South Wales Sea Fisheries Committee are organis-
ing a major cull among Oystercatchers wintering in the Burry Inlet, south Wales.
This is being done under the authorities of the Minister for Agriculture and the
Secretary of State for Wales, and the excuse, of course, is that local consumption
of cockles by the birds is damaging the cockle fishing industry. Needless to say,
this action has caused a rift between the Ministry and conservationists, the latter
denying that the decline in cockle stocks has been due to predation by Oyster-
catchers, which have wintered there in very large numbers for well over half a
century. Moreover, there are serious disagreements concerning the proportions
of local birds versus long-distance immigrants in the Burry winter flocks, and also
over the total numbers of Oystercatchers in the Burry Inlet, with conservationists
stating that before culling began in 1973 there were about 17,000 but the Ministry
claiming that 22,000 would be nearer the truth. The fact that much of the culling
is being done in or adjacent to a nature reserve has further soured relations. As
the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds has pointed out {Birds, November-
Decembcr 1974), other factors arc more likely to have caused the decline of the
cockle fishery; Spartina has spread over hundreds of acres of sand, the river channel
has changed so that established cockle beds are being scoured, the estuary is
polluted and huge numbers of cockles have died, while there has been a high level
of illegal cockle gathering. The Ministry's attitude seems to be that since cockle
landings have declined, for whatever reason, then none can be spared for the
Oystercatchers, and the birds must go. It seems astonishing that they should
regard culling as a solution, when what it really needed is research and action to
reverse the decline in cockle stocks. Naturally, it would be more expensive to
clean the River Loughor than to pay bounties on Oystercatcher heads; and present
policies seem to be designed to appease local fishermen rather than to correct the
situation. In other birds, Cormorant and Woodpigeon for example, it has been
amply demonstrated that culling in winter is futile; it merely leads to improved
survival rates among those that escaped the cull, so that breeding numbers (the
important parameter) remain roughly stable. I note also that the verbal and printed
exchanges between the protagonists have not included a single comment from Dr
P. J. Dare, the Ministry biologist who did the lion’s share of definitive research into
Oystercatcher distribution and numbers when these were priority subjects in the
1960’s. Am I being unduly suspicious in wondering whether Dr Dare has been
officially gagged ?
A survey of sewage farms Sewage farms are often ornithological mcccas, and
one automatically connects names such as Nottingham, Bedford. Rye Meads and
Beddington with species such as Black-winged Stilt, W ilson's Phalarope, Spotted
Crake and Water Pipit. Already, a number of sewage farms have been studied in
some detail, including Aylesbury, Rye Meads, Weylands and Wisbech, but we
arc still far from assessing accurately their comparative value to breeding, passage
and roosting birds. During 1975 it is planned to survey as wide a range of sewage
disposal systems as possible (including modem establishments limited to sprinklers
and settlement tanks), to add to the existing bank of information. Additional help
will be welcomed. Many observers will have visited their local sewage works, and
be in a position to fill in an Ornithological Site Register card based on past
records extracted from their diaries. Others may feel able to undertake a mapping
census of the breeding birds employing the Common Birds Census technique.
For further details, please contact either Robert Fuller or David Glue, Populations
Section, British Trust for Ornithology, Beech Grove, Tring, Hertfordshire
HP23 5NR.
525
News and comment
526
Egg transplants for raptors The region of Long Island Sound used to have
one of the densest breeding populations of Ospreys in North America, but a major
decline followed contamination by pesticides, and many birds are still infertile or
lay thin-shelled eggs which do not survive the incubation period. As part of a
field experiment to study these reproduction problems, a graduate of the Cornell
Laboratory of Ornithology, in the years 1968-70, transferred 45 Osprey eggs or
nestlings from a healthy population in Chesapeake Bay to failing pairs in eastern
Long Island and Connecticut; hatching and fledging rates from these trans-
portations proved normal. In 1972 and 1973, seven of the fostered Ospreys were
seen within 50 km of where they fledged; by 1974 at least five of these had reared
young of their own, and the rate of population decline slowed from 11% per year
to 3%. Now that DDT and dieldrin have been banned, the long-term prospects
for the Long Island Sound Ospreys have improved, and it is believed that limited
transportations will advance the hoped-for recovery. In the 1974 breeding season,
too, the technique was extended to the Bald Eagle by the Fish and Wildlife Service.
Three eggs were collected in Minnesota, where the species is holding its own, and
used to replace infertile eggs in two eyries in Maine, where the species is endangered ;
two eaglets resulted.
Meanwhile Cornell’s own project of breeding falcons in captivity (‘News and
comment’, January 1974) continues successfully. In 1974, five pairs of Peregrines
produced 23 young, and five pairs of Prairie Falcons produced 29 young. Two
Peregrine chicks were transported to a Colorado nest, where a wild pair had
infertile eggs; the transfer was successful and both fledged safely, so Cornell’s plans
for augmenting wild stocks have begun.
Air strike hazard in Estonia The following is quoted from the Novosti Information
Service Bulletin, no. 15401, dated 15th October: ‘Civil aviation pilots in Estonia
consult, before flights, not only meteorologists but also ornithologists. Hundreds of
bird migration routes cross Estonia, and during seasonal migrations these constitute
a certain hazard to modern airliners. Scientists of the Estonian Institute of Zoology
and Botany have observed that the time, routes and altitude of the migration
flights are almost unchanged with the majority of bird species. This has enabled
experts to draw maps which help pilots to avoid hazards.’
One could wish that this press release had dealt with a few specifics, and revealed
more about the liaison channels between ornithological and aviation bodies in
Estonia; however, it is not without interest to have this confirmation from an
official source that there is real concern about bird strike risks in a Soviet Socialist
Republic.
Reprieve for the Dollard In ‘News and comment’ for December 1973 I referred
to Dutch plans involving reclamation on their side of the Dollard, which would
have had serious consequences for the Avocet populations of north-west Europe.
It is now reported ( IUCN Bulletin, October) that the Netherlands Government
has decided to route the proposed Dollard Canal to the Waddensee behind the sea-
dike, not through the Dollard itself. This is welcome news, since the Dollard is a
waterfowl habitat of international importance, an undisturbed tidal area never-
theless dominated by brackish water, resulting in a plant and animal community
found nowhere else.
Some regional publications Clearing my desk for the end of the year, I find
five 1974 I'egional publications not yet reviewed in ‘News and comment’ though
meriting mention which, unfortunately, must be brief, since space is limited:
Atlas of Breeding Birds m Devon, by Humphrey Sitters. 64 pages (A4 size). Price
£1.50, from Devon BYVPS, c/o P. VV. Ellicott, Clitters, Trusham, Newton Abbot,
Devon TQ13 olx. Following the national fieldwork for the BTO Atlas, it is likely
527
Mews and comment
that a number of counties will produce special publications using their own
data, as in fact the West Midland Bird Club did four years ago (see Brit. Birds ,
63: 217-218). This Devon Atlas will be useful to those knowing or visiting the
county, and is an example that other counties could follow.
Lakeland Birdlife 1920-1970, by R. H. Brown. 150 pages. Price £1.51, post paid,
from Carlisle NHS, The Museum, Castle Street, Carlisle, Cumberland. This is a
personal record by one naturalist of the changes he has noticed in the birdlife
of the area over 50 years, based entirely on the author’s field-work. Copious
space is given to commoner species, and it can be recommended on this account.
The author has long been a keen ringer, and numerous recoveries are quoted in
context.
The Sevenoaks Gravel Pit Reserve, by Jeffery Harrison. 116 pages. Price 5op, from
WAGBI, Grosvenor House, 104 Watergate Street, Chester chi 2Lf. A compre-
hensive account of this reserve’s natural history, with special emphasis on birds.
It is a successor to A Wildfowl Gravel Pit Reserve, by the same author, published
in 1972 and reviewed in Brit. Birds, 65: 18 1.
Check List of the Birds of Dorset, by J. V. Boys. 68 pages. Obtainable from Dorset
NHS, County Museum, Dorchester, Dorset (price not stated). A useful booklet
from an ornithologically important south coast county. The distributional in-
formation is presented in the systematic list format; individual species accounts
are often brief, but made more meaningful by frequent use of Atlas data, the
10 x 10 km squares occupied being given by grid numbers which appear on an
endpaper map.
Birds of Sark, by F. R. G. Rountree. 82 pages. Price £1.91, post paid, from Sark
Ornithological Committee, c/o Lc Perroncrie, Sark, via Guernsey, Channel
Islands. This is an instructive account of the birdlife of this small island, 492
hectares in extent. There are 17 introductory pages (including an ecological
sketch), the remainder being devoted to a detailed systematic list. This is the first
work of its kind to be devoted to Sark birdlife, and it is a useful addition to the
ornithological literature of the Channel Islands.
Opinions expressed in this feature are not necessarily those of the editors of British Birds
September reports D. A. Christie
These are largely unchecked reports, not authenticated records
September was, like August, dominated by weather from die North Atlantic, as a
seemingly unending series of deep depressions crossed Ireland and Britain. Severe
gales occurred early in the month, particularly during 7th-8th, with storm-
force winds in places, and these no doubt accounted for the appearance inland
of several seabirds and the arrival of a number of Nearctic waders. The only
calm period came in the middle of the month, when passerine movement was
more evident. As well as being a stormy month, September was also one of the
coldest and wettest on record: in the Bristol area rainfall was more than double
the average and in Nottinghamshire rain fell on 25 out ol the 30 days of the month.
SEABIRDS
The storms brought a number of seabirds inland, especially during 5th-9th.
Prominent among these wrere Shags Phalacrocorax aristotelis : we heard of six in
Derbyshire, seven in Warwickshire, singles in Hertfordshire and Buckinghamshire,
eight in Kent and five in Somerset. A Red-throated Diver Gavia stellata at
Ogston Reservoir (Derbyshire) from 13th to 15th was very early inland, and in
528 September reports
full summer plumage. Single Manx Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus were found at
at least eight inland localities, in Lancashire (three), Staffordshire, Warwick-
shire (two), Lincolnshire and Somerset. A petrel at Staines Reservoir (Middlesex)
on 14th was not identified specifically, though singles at Eye Brook Reservoir
(Leicestershire) on 21st and at Blithfield Reservoir (Staffordshire) on 26th
were both shown to be Leach’s Oceanodroma leucorhoa. A Gannet Sula bassana
appeared at Kineton (Warwickshire) on 5th and another was found dead at Cheddar
Reservoir (Somerset) on 6th, while one found alive near Scarrington, Bingham
(Nottinghamshire), on gth was released at Gibraltar Point (Lincolnshire) on 1 ith.
Great Skuas Stercorarius skua were storm-driven to Egginton gravel pits (Derby-
shire) on 2nd, and to Belvide Reservoir (Staffordshire) and Cheddar Reservoir
both on 7th; Arctic Skuas S. parasiticus occurred at four places in the Midlands
from 6th, and at Chew Valley Lake (Somerset) on nth (two); and there was an
adult Long-tailed Skua S. longicaudus at Tealham Moor (Somserset) on 28th.
Most unusually, a Sabine’s Gull Larus sabini appeared at Upton Warren (Wor-
cestershire) on 8th.
Apart from the larger movements, which will be treated in a later summary,
the more normal seabird records (all singles) included Balearic Shearwaters
P. p mauretanicus at Portstewart (Co. Londonderry) on 22nd and at Bardsey
(Caernarvonshire) on 28th; Great Shearwaters P. gravis off Lundy (Devon)
during 6th*7th, at Gibraltar Point on 15th and at Fair Isle (Shetland) on 21st;
and Cory’s Shearwaters Calonectris diomedea at Tarbat Ness (Ross-shire) on 1st,
off Lundy on 7th and off Ness Point, Lowestoft (Suffolk), on 19th. Sooty
Shearwaters P. griseus were reported from twelve sites, all but three on the
east coast. By far the highest numbers were at Seaton Sluice (Northumberland)
where a total of 136 passed north and one south on four dates; peaks came on
3rd (36) and 24th (78). Leach’s Petrels were noted in extremely high numbers
during the gales in the fourth week: at St Ives (Cornwall) about 500 were esti-
mated on 23rd, some 40 were counted off the south-west Lancashire coast and
41 off the Calf of Man on 22nd, and about 50 were off the Wirral peninsula
(Cheshire) on 26th; smaller number." were noted elsewhere. A seabird accounted
for the most unexpected report of the month, from Cape Clear Island (Co. Cork)
on 5th — a Soft-plumaged Petrel Pterodroma mollis, the North Atlantic race of
which breeds at Madeira and in the Cape Verde Islands; this population is very
small and sightings far from the two breeding sites are few indeed. Needless
to say, this would be the first British and Irish record if accepted.
Eight coastal and offshore reports of Long-tailed Skuas came from Scilly,
Devon, Kent and four places in north-east England; and 19 further Sabine’s
Gulls were widely scattered from Somerset round to Yorkshire.
HERONS TO SWANS
Another rather poor autumn for the rarer herons produced only three new Purple
Herons Ardea purpurea, at Lightshaw Hall Flash (Lancashire) on 7th, at Sandwich
Bay (Kent) on 8th and on the south-west Lancashire mosses on 13th; and one
Little Egret Egretta garzetta, at Kidwelly saltings (Carmarthenshire) for the
last week of the month. An adult and an immature White Stork Ciconia ciconia
appeared near Gisburne (Lancashire) on 15th, and Spoonbills Platalea leucorodia
were found at Blakeney Point (Norfolk) on 1st, at Porthgwarra (Cornwall) on
14th and in the Dee estuary (Cheshire/Flintshire) for most of the month.
A Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis was in the Ythan estuary (Aberdeen-
shire) on 8th, the first Fair Isle sighting was on 16th, and one flew north at Seaton
Sluice on 24th. Velvet Scoters Melanitta Jusca were reported from Hengistbury
Head (Hampshire) (two west on 7th) and six east coast localities. Fair Isle’s
second King Eider Somateria spectabilis of the year occurred on 18th, staying to
at least the end of October.
September reports 529
There were several sightings of grey geese Anser spp, the earliest being a
flock of 21 flying south at Cresswell (Northumberland) on 4th. At Loch of
Strathbcg (Aberdeenshire) the first Greylags A. anser were identified on 19th.
Six Pinkfeet A. brachyrhynchus were at Sandwich Bay from 14th but the general
arrival took place from 1 8th- 19th: a major influx was noted on the south-west
Lancashire mosses on 18th and by the end of the month over 2,000 were back,
having brought the first Whitefront A. albifrons with them. Whooper Swans
Cygnus cygnus were recorded at at least ten places in Shetland, Aberdeenshire,
Northumberland, Lancashire and Northern Ireland; the first five arrived early
at Fair Isle on 20th, a day after the first at Loch of Strathbeg, while at Holy
Island (Northumberland) the first 38 arrived on 26th and 50 had returned by
29th.
RAPTORS AND CRAKES
Up to three Buzzards Buteo buteo were seen on four dates at Beachy Head (Sussex).
At Marazion (Cornwall) an early Rough-legged Buzzard B. lagopus came in high
from the west on 16th and flew on eastwards. Single Honey Buzzards Pernis
apivorus were noted at Gibraltar Point on 8th and at Spurn (Yorkshire) on 15th,
while at Tynemouth (Northumberland), also on 15th, a kite Alilvus sp flew south.
A Montagu’s Harrier Circus py gar gus was reported at Stodmarsh (Kent) on 14th,
one was at Portland (Dorset) in mid-month and another at Arne (also Dorset) on
18th. We heard of twelve or so Ospreys Pandion haliaetus in nine English and
Welsh counties, while of many reports of Hobbies Falco subbuteo the most interest-
ing was of four together at Draycote (Warwickshire) on 15th, the last being
seen there on 1st October. Two male Red-footed Falcons F. vespertinus were
seen, at Severn Vale (Gloucestershire) on 1 6th and at Wick Hams (Hampshire)
on 1 8th. In Lancashire there were Spotted Crakes Porzana porzana at Rumworth
Reservoir, Bolton, on 3rd and at Leighton Moss from 9th to 28th; one on Fair
Isle on 30th may have been the bird present on 18th and 19th (trapped); and
on the Exe marshes (Devon) singles were noted throughout the month. A Corn-
crake Crex crex at Dungeness (Kent) on 17th was an unusual migrant, and another
was discovered dead about the same time at Portland.
WADERS AND TERNS
A Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima well inland at Staunton Harold on 21st
and 22nd provided only the fifth Derbyshire record, while another appeared at
Shrewsbury sewage farm (Shropshire) on 29th. Kentish Plovers Charadrius
alexandrinus were reported from only four places: Rainham (Essex) from 1st to
5th, Sandwich Bay on 8th, Rye Harbour (Sussex) on 17th and \antlet (Kent) on
17th (two). Fourteen Dotterels Eudromias morinellus passed through Lundy
between 27th August and 26th September, making this one of the best passage
sites for the species; other Dotterels were seen at Portland on 7th. Rye Harbour
on 8th and 9th, Brean Down (Somerset) on 10th, Allhallows (Kent' on 14th
and 22nd (two), Severn Beach (Gloucestershire) from 14th to 1 7t^1> St Marys
(Scilly) from 14th to at least 16th and Beachy Head on 15th (two), while in
Cornwall they were present on several days in mid-month at St Just airfield
and Porthgwarra (four on 17th); one was on Alderney from 15th to 19th. Further
Temminek’s Stints Calidris temminckii turned up at Sidlcsham (Sussex) on 1st, at
Sandbach (Cheshire) until 5th, and at three places in Kent (four birds), while at
Netherfield (Nottinghamshire) one from 4th to 24th was joined by a second from
15th to 1 8th, making three records for this locality this autumn. Seven Red-
necked Phalaropes Phalaropus lobatus were reported, but more significantly, as
a result of the stormy weather, there were several dozen Grey Phalaropes P.
fulicarius. The majority of the latter occurred in the first nine days, particularly
during 7th*9th when probably 40 to 45 were reported in Sussex, Hampshire,
530
September reports
Dorset, Scilly, Glamorgan, Merioneth and Lancashire, and inland in Somerset,
Middlesex, Northamptonshire, Leicestershire and Yorkshire. Eleven were found
in Glamorgan during 7th- 12 th, about eight in Scilly, up to seven at Steart
(Somerset) and six at Ferrybridge/Langton Herring (Dorset); there was a further
inland record at Staines Reservoir from 14th to 16th. Single Avocets Recurvirostra
avosetta turned up at Oglet Bay in the Mersey estuary on 8th, at Slimbridge
(Gloucestershire) on 16th and 17th and at Martin Mere (Lancashire) on 25th.
After the early August record of Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus {Brit. Birds,
67: 490), further arrivals were noted at eight localities in September, the first
being three on Fair Isle on 1st; most unusual was one standing in a road at night
at Frieth (Buckinghamshire) on 16th.
Vagrant waders provided a good variety. Two do witchers Limnodromus sp were
at Shellness (Kent) on 8th and one or two on 15th, and another at Fairburn Ings
(Yorkshire) on 25th, while a Long-billed Dowitcher L. scolopaceus stayed at
Rodbourne sewage farm, Swindon (Wiltshire), from 13th to 23rd. In Scotland
a Great Snipe Gallinago media found on Out Skerries (Shetland) on 10th stayed
almost two weeks until 22nd. The second and third Solitary Sandpipers
Tringa solitaria of the autumn were recorded at Rainham from 1st to 6th and on
Tresco (Scilly) from 8th to nth (the second there in two months). Further
Nearctic birds included Lesser Yellowlegs T. Jlavipes at Carse of Ardersier
(Nairnshire) on 15th, at Altcar Moss (Lancashire) on 28th, and (possibly the
same one) at Martin Mere on 29th and 30th. Also at Martin Mere from 14th to 16th
was a Palearctic vagrant, a Marsh Sandpiper T. stagnatilis, the second in 1974.
Among smaller waders were four Baird’s Sandpipers C. bairdii at Carnforth
marsh/ Silverdale (Lancashire) on 5th and 6th, on Lundy from 6th to 13th, at Glad-
house Reservoir (Midlothian) from 14th to 16th, and at Steart on 15th and 16th;
a White-rumped Sandpiper C. fuscicollis at Ferrybridge from 4th to 9th;
a probable Western C. mauri at Arne on nth; and a Semipalmated C. pusilla
at Duncrue Street, Belfast, from 15th to at least 18th. Pectoral Sandpipers
C. melanotos were reported from twelve places, in Aberdeenshire, Lincolnshire/
Norfolk, Suffolk, Hampshire, Somerset, Devon, Scilly and Antrim/Londonderry,
up to three on St Mary’s being accompanied by a much rarer Sharp-tailed Sand-
piper C. acuminata from 20th to 29th, providing good opportunities for com-
parison of these closely related species. Buff-breasted Sandpipers Tryngites
subruficollis were rather plentiful: one on Fair Isle on 8th, one on St Mary’s from
8th to 10th, with two on 14th and three on 15th, one on Lundy on 6th, another
on 7th and a third from 14th to 16th, one at Sidlesham from 9th to nth, up
to four (possibly seven) at Portland from gth to 12th, and one at Lough Beg
(Cos. Antrim/Londonderry) from 15th to at least 22nd; one was on Guernsey on
1 2th, two on 13th, and two ringed on 16th, one of which stayed until 24th
when of two seen only one wore a ring, showing that at least three birds were
involved. A Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus, the third in 1974, was
on Lundy from 1st to 9th. Lastly, there were Wilson’s Phalaropes P. tricolor
at Duncrue Street on 1st and at Loch of Hillwell (Shetland) on 27th, and from a
different direction two Black-winged Pratincoles Glareola nordmanni at Rumworth
Reservoir on 15th.
Ten White-winged Black Terns Chlidonias leucopterus were seen up to 18th in
seven counties north to Yorkshire and west to Glamorgan and Somerset. There
were three Whiskered Terns C. hybrida, one at Belvide Reservoir on 1st and 2nd,
one at Eglwys Nunydd Reservoir (Glamorgan) on 7th, and in Cheshire one at
Reedsmere on 9th and 10th which mvoed to Sandbach on nth. A Gull-billed
Gelochehdon nilotica was at Botany Bay, Margate (Kent), on 9th and two were
at Cley (Norfolk) on 28th, and a Caspian Hydroprogne caspia appeared at Hilbre
Island (Cheshire) on 7th.
September reports 33 1
BEE-EATER TO FLYCATCHERS
On 14th a Bee-eater Merops apiaster was seen at Porthgwarra (Cornwall); an
Alpine Swift Apus melba appeared at Foreness Point (Kent) on 13th and another
at Stiflkey (Norfolk) twelve days later. Hoopoes Upupa epops were noted at
eleven places; at least six reports, involving eight birds, were during the calm
weather of 14- 15th, which seems to have been a good weekend for southern
vagrants.
Migrant Great Spotted Woodpeckers Dendrocopos major were on Fair Isle from
9th to 14th and on 25th, and on the south coast Woodlarks Lullula arborea
arrived at Dungeness on 22nd and at Beachy Head on 29th. Reports of Fieldfares
Turdns pilaris came from 18 places and of Redwings T. iliacus from 15: most were
from northern areas and in neither case were large numbers involved. Single
Bluethroats Luscinia svecica arrived on Fair Isle on 14th and 29th and there
was a very unusual inland record of one at Rodbourne sewage farm on 20th.
The increasing incidence of Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti was reflected by
two September records, singles at Beachy Head on 15th and at Marazion on 16th.
A Savi’s Warbler Locustella luscinioides was singing at Minsmere (Suffolk) up
to nth, the latest date ever recorded there. A warbler present on St Mary’s
from 30th was trapped on 15th October and identified as a Paddyfield Acroctphalus
agricola , only the fourth British record. Aquatic Warblers A. paludicola appear
to have been far fewer than in 1973: other than at Radipole Lake (Dorset),
where eight had been trapped by 15th September, no August reports were received,
and in September there were just singles on St Agnes (Scilly) on 14th and at
South Milton Ley (Devon) on 19th, and one unusually far north on Fair Isle on
15th which was found dead on 23rd. There were more Melodious Warblers
Hippolais polyglotta: in Scilly they were present from 6th to 15th, with a maximum
of three on St Agnes on nth; four were at Portland on 7th; singles were trapped
on the Calf of Man on nth, on Bardsey on 12th and i6th-24th, and at Beachy
Head on 15th, on which date there were three at Porthgwarra; and three or four
arrived on Skokholm (Pembrokeshire) between 13th and 18th. Reports of Icterine
Warblers H. icterina came from Aberdeenshire, Northumberland, Co. Durham,
Yorkshire, Kent, Dorset, Cornwall, Scilly and Caernarvonshire; about 23 were
involved, including six at Spurn; 15 occurred between 1 ith and 16th.
Barred Warblers Sylvia nisoria showed no particular pattern: 26 or so in
Shetland, Northumberland, Co. Durham, Yorkshire, Devon. Cornwall and
Scilly; on Fair Isle there were peaks of seven on 13th and 16th. A Subalpine
Warbler S. cantillans was trapped near Slapton (Devon) about 1 7th. Three more
Greenish Warblers Phylloscopus trochiloides brought the autumn’s total to five:
one was trapped at Lower Hauxley (Northumberland) on 1st. one was at Wells
(Norfolk) on 3rd, and the third trapped on Fair Isle on 14th. A Bonelli’s
Warbler P. bortelli was discovered at Sumburgh (Shetland) on 5th. and six days
later another on St Agnes made three for the autumn. The earliest Yellow-
browed Warbler P. inornatus, on 21st, was most unusually inland at Stapleford
(Nottinghamshire), and this was followed by singles at Folkestone Warren (Kent)
on 22nd, on Fair Isle on 23rd and at Sumburgh on 27th. Red-breasted Fly-
catchers Ficedula parva were few — single birds at Great Yarmouth (Norfolk '
on 1st, at Marsden Hall (Co. Durham) on the next day, on Fair Isle from 14th
to 16th, and at Dungeness on 17th.
PIPITS TO BUNTINGS
As many as 18 Tawny Pipits Anthus campestris are known to have reached Britain
during September; records came from Norfolk, Suffolk. Kent, Sussex, Hampshire,
Dorset, Cornwall, Scilly, Glamorgan and Pembrokeshire and there was an
indication of a small influx about the middle of the month. These were followed
by the first Richard's Pipits A. novaeseelandiae of the autumn, three at Porth-
532 September reports
gwarra on 19th and another there on 30th, and singles on Fair Isle from 28th
to 30th; two more were on Lundy during the month. Much rarer was a Citrine
Wagtail Motacilla citreola on Fair Isle from 2nd to 4th.
A Lesser Grey Shrike Lanius minor stayed on Mull (Argyll) from 5th to 9th
and another appeared on Skomer (Pembrokeshire) on 18th, while five Woodchats
L. senator comprised one trapped at Vale Pond (Guernsey) on 3rd and single birds
on St Mary’s from 6th to 1 3th, on St Agnes during this same period, on Skokholm
on 14th and on Lundy from 21st to 23rd. The first Great Grey Shrikes L.
excubitor of the autumn arrived at Dungeness on 13th (staying until 17th), on
Holy Island on 29th and at Benachie (Aberdeenshire) on 30th. The strong
westerly weather during September brought many American vagrants to our shores,
not the least surprising of which was a Baltimore Oriole Icterus galbula which
stayed on Fair Isle on 19th and 20th.
The winter finches and buntings began to arrive in September. Four Twites
Acanthis Jlavirostris at Cottam (Nottinghamshire) on 10th were presumably from
the Pennine breeding stock, but others on the east coast from 17th were more
probably immigrants. Unprecedented numbers were noted at Spurn: 130 arrived
on 28th and 220 were counted on 29th; the peak came in early October, 265 on
6th. The first Bramblings Fringilla montifringilla at Spurn were five on 12th; one
was at Graveney (Kent) on 19th, and 13 on 28th were the first to arrive on Fair
Isle, A total of four Lapland Buntings Calcarius lapponicus was sent at Spurn
from 2nd, two were near Tobermory, Mull, on 5th, and single birds at Teesmouth
(Co. Durham) and on Fair Isle on 15th, on St Agnes from 29th to 1st October,
and on Lundy; the most southerly report was of one on Lihou (Guernsey) on
19th and 29th. Three Snow Buntings Plectrophenax nivalis on Lundy on 1st were
extremely early; on the east coast these were followed by four on Fair Isle on
7th and six others, widely scattered, from 17th; elsewhere there were single
birds at Aberthaw on 21st (the first in Glamorgan since 1968), on the Calf of Man
on 28th and on St Agnes on 29th, the last followed by three the next day.
The rarer finches and buntings were three Serins Serinus serinus on St Mary’s
on 15th; one to two Scarlet Rosefinches Carpodacus erythrinus on Fair Isle from
10th to 17th, with up to six there from 21st to 27th, up to two on Gugh (Scilly)
between 28th and 3rd October, and singles at Spurn on 1 1 th, on Skokholm on
17th, on Bardsey from 17th to 19th, on St Mary’s on 22nd and on St Agnes on
27th, the latter moving across to Gugh; a Little Bruiting Emberiza pusilla at
Washington (Co. Durham) from 18th to at least the end of the month; at least
four different Yellow-breasted Buntings E. aureola on Fair Isle up to 25th, up
to two on Out Skerries from 12th to 14th and one on St Mary’s from 25th to 27th;
and finally a total of 18 or more Ortolan Buntings E. hortulana, more than in
recent Septembers, on Fair Isle (at least seven individuals between 2nd and nth),
on Lundy on unspecified dates, and during 1 1 th- 1 5th at Spurn, Dungeness,
Beachy Head and Portland (four together), and on Bardsey and St Agnes.
As a postscript, it may be of interest that a male Lazuli Bunting Passerina
amoena, a North American species imported in small numbers, appeared at Sum-
burgh on 5th just before the early September westerly gales reached their height.
stop press Reports of rare vagrants have now, understandably, declined. The
most recent are the first wild Blue Snow Geese: two arrived at Wexford Slobs with
Greenland Whitefronts at the end of October and one came in with Greenland
Barnacles at Islay (Argyll) in early November; all are thought to be still present.
A Desert Wheatear first seen at Fraisthorpe, south of Bridlington (Yorkshire), on
29th November was still present on 1st December.
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Volume 67 Number 12 December 1974
493 The voice of the Barn Owl D. S. Bunn
502 Studies of less familiar birds 174 Shore Lark and Temminck’s
Horned Lark G. R. Shannon, J. B. and S. Bottomley, Eric Soothill,
Eric Hosking and Allan D. Cruickshank Plates 68-71
Notes
511 Hen Harriers’ hunting behaviour in soutn-west Scotland R. C. Dickson
513 Large spring roost of Whimbrels in Bridgwater Bay Brian E. Slade
514 Abnormal numbers of Little Gulls in Ireland in summer Major R. F.
Ru Wedge
514 Male Cuckoo using plant material in display Ronald Harrison, and Bernard
King
515 Treecreepers apparently feeding on fat Richard S. Greenwood
516 Leaf-shaking by Dunnock R. G. Caldow
517 Both sexes of the Serin in song Dr J. J. M. Flegg
Letters
517 Eye colour of the Hen Harrier G. J. Oreel, and D. I. M. Wallace
518 House Martins roosting in reed-beds Dr Wolfgang Harms
Reviews
519 The Seabirds of Britain and Ireland by S. Cramp, W. R. P. Bourne and
D. Saunders Dr M. P. Harris
520 Flight Identification of European Raptors by R. F. Porter, Ian Willis, Steen
Christensen and Bent Pors Nielsen D. I. M. Wallace
521 The Bird-watchers' Book edited by John Gooders J. H. Andrews
522 Avifaune de Bretagne by Yves Brien D. A. Christie
523 Catalogus Faunae Jugoslaviae. IV/3. Aves by S. D. Matvejev and V. F.
Vasid Jeffery Boswall
525 News and comment Robert Hudson
527 September reports D. A. Christie
Robert R. Greenhalf drew the Barn Owl on page 501
Printed by Henry Burt & Son Ltd, College Street, Kempston, Bedford MK42 8NA
Published by Macmillan Journals Ltd, 4 Little Essex Street, London WC2R 3LF
INDEX TO VOLUME 67 1974
INDEX TO PHOTOGRAPHS IN VOLUMES 1-67
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Index to volume 67
Compiled by Mrs N. D. Blamire
Entries are in a single list with references to:
(1) every significant mention of each species, not only in titles, but also within
the text of papers, notes and letters, including all those appearing in such lists as
the ‘Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 1973’, but excluding those in the
reports summaries, ‘News and comment’, requests for information, and reviews;
(2) scientific nomenclature under generic names only and following A Species
List of British and Irish Birds (BTO Guide 13, 1971);
(3) authors of all papers, notes, reviews and letters, and photographers; papers
arc referred to by their titles, other contributions as ‘note on’, ‘review of’, etc.;
(4) a few subject headings, i.e. ‘Breeding’, ‘Display’, ‘Editorial’, ‘Field
characters’, ‘Food’, ‘Migration’, ‘News and comment’, ‘Obituaries’, ‘Rarities
Committee’, ‘Recorders’, ‘Reports’, ‘Requests for information’ and ‘Voice’;
(5) ‘Reviews’, which are listed together under this heading in alphabetical
order of authors reviewed.
Acanthis cannabina, see Linnet
Jlammea, see Redpoll
Accipiter gentilis, see Goshawk
nisus, see Sparrowhawk
Acrocephalus arundinaceus , see Warbler,
Great Reed
paludicola, see Warbler, Aquatic
palustris, see Warbler, Marsh
schoenobaenus, see Warbler, Sedge
scirpaceus, see Warbler, Reed
Adkin, G. V., photographs of Great
Northern and White-billed Divers,
plates 41b, 42a-c, 43d
Aegi'halos caudatus, see Tit, Long-tailed
Agelaius icterocephalns, see Blackbird,
Yellow- headed Marsh
phoeniceus, see Blackbird, Red-
winged
Abe spotisa, see Duck, Wood
Alauda arvensis, see Skylark
Albatross, accepted record 1973, 313
, Black-browed, accepted record
1972, 342
, S teller’s, advertisement for re-
search post on, 85
Alca torda, see Razorbill
Alcedo atthis, see Kingfisher
Alectoris rufa, see Partridge, Red-legged
Anas americana, see Wigeon, American
clypeata , see Shoveler
crecca, see Teal
carolinensis, see Teal, Green-
winged
discors, see Teal, Blue- winged
Anas erylhrorhynchos, see Duck, Red-
billed
hottentata, sec Teal, Hottentot
platyrhynchos, see Mallard
rubripes, see Duck, Black
Anderson, Alastair, letter on scope of
British Birds, 31
Andrews, J. H., review of Goodcrs:
The Bird-watchers' Book, 521-2
Anser erythropus, see Goose, Lesser
White-fronted
Anthropoides virgo, see Crane, Demoiselle
Anthus campestris, see Pipit, Tawny
cervinus, see Pipit, Red-throated
hodgsoni, see Pipit, Olive-backed
pratensis, see Pipit, Meadow
trivialis, see Pipit, Tree
Apus affinis, see Swift, Little
apus, see Swift
melba, see Swift, Alpine
Aquila chrysaetos, see Eagle, Golden
clanga, see Eagle, Spotted
pomarina, see Eagle, Lesser
Spotted
rapax orientalis, see Eagle, Steppe
Ardea cinerea, see Heron, Grey
purpurea, see Heron, Purple
Ardeola gravii, see Heron, Indian Pond
ralloides, see Heron, Squacco
Ardeotis kori, see Bustard, Kori
Arremon aurantiirostris, see Sparrow,
Orange-billed
Asio flammeus, see Owl, Short-eared
otus, see Owl, Long-eared
533
534
Athene noctua, see Owl, Little
Atkin, Keith, photograph of Night
Heron, plate 45a; of Red-throated
Diver, plate 28b; of Swift, plate 34a
Avocet, direct head-scratching in flight,
243; photograph of Common Tern
alighting at nest of, plate 22
Ay thy a collaris, see Duck, Ring-necked
ferina, see Pochard
fuligula, see Duck, Tufted
marila, see Scaup
Barber, Derek, letter on scope of
British Birds and seasonal analyses of
records, 30-3 1 ; on effects of agri-
cultural change on birds, 395-6;
review of Campbell: The Countryman
Bird Book, 244-5
Bartramia longicauda, see Sandpiper,
Upland
Batten, L. A., the colonisation of
England by the Firecrest: correc-
tion, 256
Bee-eater, food in southern Spain,
158-64; importation of, 191; feeding
on wasps, 222, 227, 229; accepted
records 1973, 329-30
, Blue-cheeked, wintering in East
Africa, 73, plate n a
, Red-throated, eating wasps, 226
Belman, P. J., note on iris colour of
juvenile Night Herons, 120; on
Purple Heron chick regurgitating
young Little Grebe, 439
Bevan, Geoffrey, studies of less familiar
birds: 173 — Icterine Warbler, 370-6,
plates 52-4; review of Hosking and
Gooders: Wildlife Photography, 80-1
Birkhead, T. R., predation by birds
on social wasps, 221-9
Bittern, Little, accepted records 1973,
315; accepted records 1972, 342
Blackbird, status on farmland, 57, 62-3,
69; frequency of plumage abnormali-
ties, 123-4; eating wasps, 229; prey
of Long-eared Owl, 367; eating
apple blossom, 441 ; numbers in
Regent’s Park 1959-68, 453-8, 460-1 ;
breeding success in Regent’s Park,
463-4; taken by Hen Harrier, 512
, Red-winged, importation of, 192
, Yellow-headed, importation of,
192
, Yellow-headed Marsh, importa-
tion of, 192
Index to volume 67
Blackburn, Frank V., photograph of
Crossbill, plate 34b
Blackcap, status on farmland, 62, 69;
eating wasps, 229; numbers in
Regent’s Park 1959-68, 453; breed-
ing success in Regent’s Park, 464
Blewitt, R. J. C., photograph of
Sparrowhawks, plate 35a
Bluetail, Red-flanked, importation of,
l9l
Bluethroat, Red-spotted, importation
of, 191
Bobolink, importation of, 192
Bombycilla garrulus, see Waxwing
Bonham, P. F., and Sharrock, J. T. R.,
note on Sedge Warblers singing in
fields of rape, 389-90
Booby, Brown, breeding adaptations,
414, 427
Boswall, Jeffrey, obituary of Ludwig
Koch, 472-4; review of Matvejev
and Vasic: Catalogus Faunae Jugo-
slaviae. IV/3. Aves, 523-4
Bottomley, J. B. and S., photograph of
Common Terns, plate 23a; of
juvenile Common Sandpiper, plate
31a; of Great Northern Diver,
plate 41a; of Great Spotted Cuckoo,
plate 45b; of Long-billed Dowitcher,
plate 46; of Pectoral Sandpipers,
plate 51 ; of Ross’s Gull, plate 64; of
Shore Lark and habitat, plate 68
Bourne, W. R. P., letter on Cyprus
cranes and English bird names,
1 70- 1 ; on melanism in shearwaters
and auks, 392-3
Boyle, Geoffrey L., note on Grey
Phalarope feeding on earthworms,
352; on Kestrel taking prey from
Short-eared Owl, 474-5
Brambling, status on farmland, 69;
prey of Long-eared Owl, 369
Branta canadensis, see Goose, Canada
leucopsis, see Goose, Barnacle
Breeding: Great Crested Grebe, 413-37,
plates 56-63; Purple Gallinule,
230-6, plates 37-40; Moorhen, 105-
15, 137-58, plate 25. Nests: Blue Tit,
78-9; Chaffinch, 27. Fledging:
Cuckoo, 26-7, plate 4b
Broad, Roger A., contamination of
birds with Fulmar oil, 297-301
Brooke, R. K., note on Steppe Eagle in
Africa, 393
Bubo bubo, see Owl, Eagle
Index to volume 67
Bubulcus ibis, see Egret, Cattle
Budgerigar, breeding in England in
wild, 19 1
Bullfinch, status on farmland, 69; prey
of Long-cared Owl, 369; numbers
in Regent’s Park 1959-68, 453-4,
458, 460; breeding success in
Regent’s Park, 463-4
Bundy, Graham, letter on identifica-
tion of juvenile Arctic Terns, 246-7
Bunn, D. S., the voice of the Barn
Owl, 493-501
Bunting, (African) Rock, importation
of, 192
, Black-headed, importation of,
192; accepted records 1973, 339
, Girl, type of hedge preferred, 485
, Corn, status on farmland, 57, 62,
69; type of hedge preferred, 485
, Indigo, importation of, 192;
accepted record 1973, 346
, Lazuli, importation of, 192
, Little, accepted records 1973, 339
, Painted, importation of, 192
, Rainbow, importation of, 192
, Red-headed, importation of, 192
, Reed, status on farmland, 62, 69;
oiled by Fulmar, 298, 300; prey of
Long-eared Owl, 369
, Rustic, accepted record 1973, 339
, Snow, on farmland, 69
, Yellow-breasted, escape notified,
185; importation of, 192; accepted
records 1973, 339
Burhinus oedicnemus, see Curlew, Stone
Burn, David M., photographs of
White-billed and Great Northern
Divers, plates 43a-c, e, 44
, , and Mather, John R., the
White-billed Diver in Britain, 257-
96, plates 41-44
Bustard, Great, importation of, 191
, Kori, importation of, 19 1
Buteo buteo, see Buzzard
jamaicensis, see Hawk, Red-tailed
Buzzard, breeding biology in Speyside,
199-2 10; eating wasps, 229; aggres-
sive behaviour at nest, 238-9
, Honey, feeding on wasps, 223,
225, 227, 229; oiled by Fulmar,
298, 300; mobbed by Crag Martins,
379
535
Caldow, R. G., note on leaf-shaking by
Dunnock, 516
Calidris acuminata, see Sandpiper, Sharp-
tailed
alpina, see Dunlin
bairdii, see Sandpiper, Baird’s
fuscicollis, see Sandpiper, White-
rumped
mauri, see Sandpiper, Western
melanotos, see Sandpiper, Pectoral
minuta, see Stint, Little
minutilla, see Sandpiper, Least
pusilla, see Sandpiper, Semi-
palmated
ru/icollis, see Stint, Red-necked
subminuta, see Stint, Long-toed
temminckii, see Stint, Temminck’s
Calonectris diomedea, see Shearwater,
Cory’s
Campbell, Bruce, letter on wader
nesting associations, 82 ; note on
Robin killing Robin, 121-2; letter
on proof of breeding of Shore
Larks, 127
Canary, Domestic, wide colour range,
•92-3; female song developed by
hormone injection, 517
Caprimulgus turopaeus, see Nightjar
Cardinal, importation of, 192
Carduelis carduelis, see Goldfinch
chloris, see Greenfinch
Carlson, Kevin J. V., photograph of
Purple Heron, plate 32
Carlson, R. G., photograph of Azure-
winged Magpie, plate 35b
Carpodacus erythrinus, see Roscfinch,
Scarlet
Certhia brachydactyla, see Treecreeper,
Short-toed
familiaris, see Treecreeper
Cettia cetti, see Warbler, Cetti’s
Chaffinch, domed nest, 27; status on
farmland, 56-7, 69; removing
material from Long-tailed Tits’
nests, 79; numbers in Regent’s Park
1959-68, 453-4, 457-8, 460-2; breed-
ing success in Regent’s Park, 463-4
Charadrius dubius, see Plover, Litde
Ringed
hiaticula, see Plover, Ringed
tricollaris, see Plover, Three-
banded
Charles, W. N., photographs of
breeding activities of Great Crested
Grebes, plates 56-62
Calandrella cinerea, see Lark, Short-toed
536
Chiffchaff, status on farmland, 62, 69
Chlidonias hybrida, see Tern, Whiskered
leucopterus, see Tern, White-
winged Black
niger, see Tern, Black
Christie, D. A., review of Brien:
Avifaune de Bretagne, 522-3; monthly
reports, see Reports
Cichladusa guttata, see Warbler, Spotted
Morning
Ciconia ciconia, see Stork, White
nigra, see Stork, Black
Circus aeruginosus, see Harrier, Marsh
cyaneus, see Harrier, Hen
macrourus, see Harrier, Pallid
Pygargus, see Harrier, Montagu’s
City of Liverpool Museums, photo-
graph of White-billed Diver, plate
42d
Clamator glandarius, see Cuckoo, Great
Spotted
Coccothraustes coccothraustes, see Hawfinch
Coccyzus americanus, see Cuckoo, Yellow-
billed
Colinus virginianus, see Quail, Bobwhite
Columba livia, see Pigeon, Feral
oenas, see Dove, Stock
palumbus, see Woodpigeon
Conder, Peter, review of Batten et al. :
Birdwatchers' Year, 80
Cooke, D. A. P., photograph of Arctic
Terns, plate 33b
Coot, display postures compared with
Moorhen’s, 111-2; juveniles feeding
younger siblings, 1 5 1 ; nest-like struc-
tures, 153; taking wasp, 226;
attacking Herring Gull, 242; oiled
by Fulmar, 298; mobbed by Swallow,
355; numbers in Regent’s Park
1 959-68, 453, 459; breeding success
in Regent’s Park, 463
, American, display postures com-
pared with Moorhen’s, 1 1 1 -2 ; nest-
like structures, 1 53
Coracias bengalensis, see Roller, Indian
garrulus, see Roller
Corvus corax, see Raven
corone cornix, see Crow, Hooded
corone, see Crow, Carrion
frugilegus, see Rook
monedula, see Jackdaw
Coturnix coturnix, see Quail
Crake, Little, accepted records 1973,
320
Cramp, Stanley, review of Parrack:
Index to volume 6y
The Naturalist in Majorca, 243-4; °6
Walkinshaw: Cranes of the World, and
Burton : Owls of the World, 480- 1
Crane, confusion over Cyprus records,
1 70-1; importation of, 190; accepted
record 1973, 320
, Demoiselle, Cyprus records, 1 70 ;
importation of, 190
-, Sandhill, imported under licence,
180
, Sarus, importation of, 190
, Siberian White, importation of,
189
Crossbill, photograph, plate 34b
, Two-barred, confusion over
vernacular names, 1 7 1 ; accepted
records 1973, 338-9; accepted record
1972, 343
Crow, Carrion, young Cuckoo’s reac-
tion to, 27; status on farmland, 69;
food-burying, 215; eating oily fish
paper, 355; numbers in Regent’s
Park 1959-68, 453, 457, 460-1;
breeding success in Regent’s Park,
463-4; harassing Hen Harriers, 512
, Hooded, eating wasps, 229;
oiled by Fulmar, 298; large flock in
Suffolk, 355-6
Cruickshank, Allan D., photographs of
North American Horned Larks,
plate 71
Cuckoo, young reared by Wren, 26-7,
plate 4b; reacting to predators, 27;
parasitisation of Reed Warblers,
442-3; parasitising Swallow, 478,
plate 65b; using plant material in
display, 514-5
, Great Spotted, accepted record
1973, 328, plate 45b
, Yellow-billed, accepted record
1973, 328
Cuculus canorus, see Cuckoo
Curlew, status on farmland, 69;
gapeworm infestation, 442; attacked
by Hen Harrier, 5 1 1
— -, Stone, two females laying in one
nest, 165-6, plate 28a
Cyanopica cyanus, see Magpie, Azure-
winged
Cygnus cygnus, see Swan, Whooper
olor, see Swan, Mute
Dawson, Rodney, photograph of Little
Egret, plate 31b
Delichon urbica, see Martin, House
Index to volume 67
Dendrocopos major, see Woodpecker,
Great Spotted
Dendroica coronata, see Warbler, Myrtle
Dickson, R. C., note on Hen Harriers’
hunting behaviour in South-west
Scotland, 51 1-3
Diomedea albatrus, see Albatross, Steller’s
melanophris, see Albatross, Black-
browed
Display: Sparrowhawk, 239-42; Black
Grouse, 116-20, plates 13-20; Moor-
hen, 105-12; Cuckoo, 514-5
Diver, Great Northern, problems of
separation from White-billed, 262-
76, plates 41-44
, Red-throated, photograph, plate
28b
, White-billed, breeding distribu-
tion and range, 259-61; field-
characters, 261-76, plates 41-44;
summary of British records, 276-93;
accepted records 1973, 313; accepted
record 1967: amendment, 340;
accepted records 1962, 1964, 1965,
340; accepted records 1966, 1969,
1970, 1971, 341; accepted record
1 972» 342
Dolichonyx oryzivorus, see Bobolink
Dove, Barbary, ‘escape’ found at
lighthouse, 184
, Namaqua, importation of, 191
, Rufous Turtle, importation of,
1 91 ; in Cornwall October 1973, 328,
352-4
, Stock, status on farmland, 62,
69; numbers in Regent’s Park
1959-68, 453, 458; breeding success
in Regent’s Park, 464
, Turtle, status on farmland, 57,
62, 69
Dowitcher, accepted records 1973, 321
, Long-billed, accepted records
•973> 321, plates 46, 47
Dryocopus javensis, see Woodpecker,
White-bellied Black
Duck, Black, problem of escapes, 186
, Red-billed, Marsh Sandpiper
feeding in association with, 477
, Ring-necked, problem of escapes,
186; accepted records 1973, 316-7
, Ruddy, feral birds confused with
White-headed Ducks, 190
, Tufted, numbers in Regent’s
Park, 1959-68, 453; breeding success
in Regent’s Park, 463
537
Duck, Wood, confusion over vernacular
names, 171
Dunlin, gapeworm infestation, 442
Dunnock, status on farmland, 57, 69;
approaching fighting Robins, 122;
prey of Long-eared Owl, 369;
numbers in Regent’s Park 1959-68,
453> 456-8, 460-1; breeding success
in Regent’s Park, 463-4; feeding
Cuckoo reared in Swallow’s nest,
478; leaf-shaking, 516
Eagle, Golden, building on Buzzard’s
nest with chicks, 202-3
, Lesser Spotted, importation of,
•93
, Spotted, importation of, 193
, Steppe, wintering in East Africa,
71, plate 7b; worn tail-feathers, 188;
wintering ranges in Africa, 393
, Tawny, importation of, 193
, White-tailed, oiled by Fulmar,
298-300; accepted record 1973, 318
Editorial: advances in field identifica-
tion, 309-10
Egret, Cattle, importation of, 190
, Great White, importation of, 190
, Little, importation of, 190;
accepted records 1973, 314; accepted
record 1972, 342; photograph, plate
31b
Egretta alba, see Egret, Great White
garzetta, see Egret, Little
Eider, photograph, plate 48
, King, accepted records 1973, 317
, Steller’s, accepted record 1973,
317, plate 48
Elanus caeruleus, see Kite, Black-winged
Elkins, N., and Etheridge, B., the
Crag Martin in winter quarters at
Gibraltar, 376-87, plate 55
Emberiza aureola, see Bunting, Yellow-
breasted
bruniceps, sec Bunting, Red-
headed
calandra, see Bunting, Corn
cirlus, see Bunting, Cirl
dtrinella, see Yellow-hammer
melanocephala, see Bunting, Black-
headed
pusilla, see Bunting, Little
rustica, see Bunting, Rustic
schoenidus, see Bunting, Reed
tahapisi, see Bunting, (.African)
Rock
538
England, M. D., a further review of the
problem of ‘escapes’, 177-97; letter
on Redpolls feeding from floating
vegetation, 218; note on Black
Storks wing-spreading while feeding,
236-7; on grebes eating bread, 302;
letter on feral populations of parra-
keets, 393-4
Eremophila alpestris, see Lark, Shore
bilopha, see Lark, Temminck’s
Homed
Erithacus rubecula, see Robin
Etheridge, B., see Elkins, N.
Falco biarmicus, see Lanner
eleonorae, see Falcon, Eleonora’s
naumanni, see Kestrel, Lesser
peregrinus, see Peregrine
rusticolus, see Gyrfalcon
subbuteo, see Hobby
tinnunculus, see Kestrel
vespertinus, see Falcon, Red-footed
Falcon, Eleonora’s, eating wasps, 229
, Gyr, see Gyrfalcon
, Red-footed, eating wasps, 229;
accepted records 1973, 318-9;
accepted record 1967, 341
Ficedula hypoleuca, see Flycatcher, Pied
parva, see Flycatcher, Red-
breasted
Field-characters: Great Northern
Diver, 262-76, plates 41-44; White-
billed Diver, 261-76, plates 41-44;
Scaup, 302-3; Hen Harrier, 517-8;
Greenshank, 210-1; Little Stint,
4-5, 10-15, plate 2; Red-necked
Stint, 6, 10-15, plate 2; Least
Sandpiper, 8-15, plates 2-3; Long-
toed Stint, 9-15, plates 2-3; Tem-
minck’s Stint, 9-15, plates 2-3;
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper, 351-2, plate
50; Semipalmated Sandpiper, 6-7,
10-15, plate 2; Western Sandpiper,
7-8, 10-15, plates 2-3; Mediterranean
Gull, 19-24; Common Tern, 133-6,
246-7, plates 22, 23a, 24b; Arctic
Tern, 133-6, 246-7, plates 21, 23b,
24a; Roseate Tern, 136, 167-8
Fieldfare, status on farmland, 69;
release of imported birds, 183
Finch, Green Singing, importation of,
192
, Trumpeter, accepted records
I97L 342
Index to volume 6y
Firecrest, colonisation of England:
correction, 256
Fish-owl, Brown, importation of, 193
Flamingo, importation of, 190
Flegg, J. J. M., note on both sexes of
the Serin in song, 517
Flycatcher, Brown, importation of, 192
, Pied, eating wasps, 225-6, 229;
prey of Long-eared Owl, 369
, Red-breasted, importation of,
192
, Spotted, status on farmland, 69;
eating wasps, 229; numbers in
Regent’s Park 1959-68, 453-4, 457;
breeding success in Regent’s Park,
463-5
, Tickell’s Blue, importation of, 192
Food: Great Crested Grebe, 302; Little
Grebe, 439; Black-throated Little
Grebe, 302; Grey Heron, 225, 229;
White Stork, 229; Buzzard, 229;
Honey Buzzard, 223, 225, 227, 229;
Hobby, 229; Eleonora’s Falcon, 229;
Red-footed Falcon, 229; Lesser
Kestrel, 229; Partridge, 229; Moor-
hen, 1 5 1 ; Common Sandpiper, 440;
Grey Phalarope, 352; Black-winged
Pratincole, 229; Little Owl, 229;
Long-eared Owl, 361-9; Alpine
Swift, 229; Needle-tailed Swift, 229;
Bee-eater, 158-64, 222, 227, 229;
Red-throated Bee-eater, 226; Roller,
229; Green Woodpecker, 225, 229;
Great Spotted Woodpecker, 229;
Carrion Crow, 355; Hooded Crow,
229; Rook, 213-5, 224, 229; Jack-
daw, 229; Magpie, 224-5, 229;
Nutcracker, 229; Jay, 224-5, 229>
Great Tit, 223-4, 229! Blue Tit, 224;
Treecreeper, 515-6; Blackbird, 229,
441; Rock Thrush, 229; Black
Wheatear, 229; Redstart, 225-6, 229;
Blackcap, 229; Garden Warbler,
229; Whitethroat, 229; Spotted
Flycatcher, 229; Great Grey Shrike,
223, 227, 229; Lesser Grey Shrike,
223, 227, 229; Red-backed Shrike,
223, 227, 229; Starling, 229, 440-1;
Redpoll, 218
Fregata sp, see Frigatebird
Frigatebird, accepted record 1973, 313
Fringilla coelebs, see Chaffinch
montifringilla, see Brambling
Fryer, G., note on aggressive behaviour
by Buzzards at nest, 238-9
Index to volume 6y
Fulica atra , see Coot
Fulmar, contaminating other species
with oil, 297-301
Fulmarus glacialis, see Fulmar
Furrer, Robert K., letter on English
bird names, 17 1-2
Gallinago gallinago, see Snipe
media, see Snipe, Great
Gallinula chloropus, see Moorhen
Gallinule, Allen’s, importation of, 190;
accepted for British and Irish list,
405-6; summary of Palearctic re-
cords, 406-10
, Purple, display postures com-
pared with Moorhen’s, 1 12; juveniles
feeding younger siblings, 151; im-
portation of, 190; breeding biology in
rnarismas of Guadalquivir, 230-6,
plates 37-40
Gannet, nest with two chicks, 25,
plate 1; migration, 89-103
, Australian, migration, 101-2
, Cape, migration, 101
Garrulus glandarius, see J ay
Gavia adamsii, see Diver, White-billed
immer, see Diver, Great Northern
stellata, see Diver, Red-throated
Gelochelidon nilotica, sec Tern, Gull-
billed
Glareola nordrnanni, see Pratincole, Black-
winged
pratincola, see Pratincole, Collared
Glue, David E., and Hammond,
Geoffrey J., feeding ecology of the
Long-eared Owl in Britain and
Ireland, 361-9
Godwit, Bar-tailed, feeding on open
heath, 303
Goldcrest, status on farmland, 62, 69;
prey of Long-eared Owl, 368-9
Goldfinch, status on farmland, 56, 62,
69; prey of Long-eared Owl, 369;
numbers in Regent’s Park 1959-68,
453> 458; breeding success in
Regent’s Park, 463-5
Goose, Barnacle, photograph of flock,
plate 30a
, Canada, numbers in Regent's
Park 1959-68, 453; breeding success
in Regent’s Park, 463; photograph,
plate 30b
, Lesser White-fronted, accepted
record 1973, 317-8
Goshawk, oiled by Fulmar, 298
539
Gowans, David A., photograph of
flock of Barnacle Geese, plate 30a
Grant, P. J., comment on letter on
identification of juvenile Arctic
I erns, 247; note on head plumage of
female Scaup, 302-3
, , see Hume, R. A.
, , see Wallace, D. I. M.
Grebe, Black-throated Little, eating
bread, 302
, Great Crested, eating bread,
302; breeding adaptations, 413-37,
plates 56-62; egg-laying, 438, plate
63; breeding in Regent’s Park, 453
, Little, function of wing-beating,
438; eaten by Purple Heron chick,
439
, Pied-billed, foot-paddling, 439
Green, Dennis, photograph of herd of
Whooper Swans, plate 36a; of
Buff-breasted Sandpiper, plate 49c;
of Sharp-tailed Sandpiper, plate 50
Greenfinch, status on farmland, 62, 69;
settling on sea, 79-80; prey of Long-
eared Owl, 367; numbers in Regent’s
Park 1959-68, 453-4, 457, 460-1;
breeding success in Regent’s Park,
463-4
Greenshank, leg colour, 210-1
Greenwood, Richard S., note on Tree-
creepers apparently feeding on fat,
5«5-6
Grenfell, H. E., photograph of Arctic
Tern, plate 24a
Grosbeak, Blue, importation of, 192
, Evening, importation of, 192
, Rose-breasted, importation of,
192
Grouse, Black, at lek, 116-120,
plates 13-20
Grus antigone, see Crane, Sarus
canadensis , see Crane, Sandhill
grus, see Crane
leucoeeranus, see Crane, Siberian
White
Guillemot, oiled by Fulmar, 298;
melanism in, 392
Guiraca caerulea, see Grosbeak, Blue
Gull, Black-headed, attacked by Medi-
terranean Gull, 24; status on farm-
land, 69; greater nesting success of
duck near colony, 82 ; predation and
breeding adaptations, 414; photo-
graph of immature, plate 24b
, Bonaparte’s, accepted records
540
»973> 326; foot-paddling, 478;
possible removal of oil by preening,
483
Gull, California, foot-paddling, 478
, Common, attacked by Mediter-
ranean Gull, 24; status on farmland,
69; attacked by Great Black-backed
Gull, 242-3; numbers in Regent’s
Park 1959-68, 459
, Great Black-backed, attacking
Common Gull, 242-3; oiled by
Fulmar, 298-300
, Herring, status on farmland, 69;
attacked by Coot, 242; oiled by
Fulmar, 298-9; numbers in Regent’s
Park 1959-68, 453, 459; breeding
success in Regent’s Park, 464
, Ivory, accepted record 1973, 326
, Laughing, foot-paddling, 478
, Lesser Black-backed, status on
farmland, 69; numbers in Regent’s
Park, 453, 459
, Little, large numbers off Co.
Wicklow, 166-7; large numbers in
Ireland in summer, 514
, Mediterranean, records at Black-
pill, Glamorgan, 1972-73, 17-24;
aggressive behaviour, 24
, Ring-billed, accepted records
i973> 326; foot-paddling, 478
, Ross’s, foot-paddling, 477-8,
plate 64
Gyps fulvus, see Vulture, Griffon
Gyrfalcon, accepted records 1973, 318;
accepted records 1972, 343
Haematopus ostralegus, see Oystercatcher
Haliaeetus albicilla, see Eagle, White-
tailed
Hammond, Geoffrey J., see Glue,
David E.
Harding, B. D., letter on scope of
British Birds and seasonal analyses of
records, 28
Hardy, Eric, note on leg colour of
Greenshank, 2 1 1
Harms, Wolfgang, letter on House
Martins roosting in reed-beds, 518-9
Harrier, Hen, wintering in East Africa,
71-2; hunting behaviour, 51 1-3;
eye colour, 517-8
, Marsh, wintering in East Africa,
71-2
, Montagu’s, wintering in East
Africa, 71-2
Index to volume 67
Harrier, Pallid, wintering in East Africa,
71-2, plate 8
Harris, M. P., review of Cramp,
Bourne and Saunders: The Seabirds
of Britain and Ireland, 519-20
Harrison, C. J. O., review of Burkhard:
Urvogel, 482-3
Harrison, Pamela, photograph of Stel-
ler’s Eider with Eiders, plate 48
Harrison, Ronald, note on male
Cuckoo using plant material in
display, 514-5
Hawfinch, prey of Long-eared Owl, 369
Hawk, Marsh, see Harrier, Hen
, Red-tailed, increase in clutch-
size with latitude, 208
Hen, Tasmanian Native, display, 112;
nest-like structures, 153
Heron, Grey, status on farmland, 69;
wintering in East Africa, 70, plate 5 ;
feeding on wasp larvae, 225, 229;
oiled by Fulmar, 298, 300; restricted
laving season, 43 1 ; breeding in
Regent’s Park, 453
, Indian Pond, importation of, 190
, Night, iris colour in juvenile,
120; importation of, 190; accepted
records 1973, 313, plate 45a
, Purple, wintering in East .Africa,
70, plate 6; importation of, 190;
accepted records 1973, 314; accepted
record 1972, 342; chick regurgitating
Little Grebe, 439; photograph,
plate 32
, Squacco, importation of, 190;
accepted record 1973, 314-5
Herrera, Carlos M., and Ramirez,
Adoracion, food of Bee-eaters in
southern Spain, 158-64
Hesperiphona vespertina, see Grosbeak,
Evening
Hibbert, F. W., note on Coot attacking
Herring Gull, 242
Himantopus himantopus, see Stilt, Black-
winged
Hippolais icterina , see Warbler, Icterine
Hirundapus caudacutus, see Swift, Needle-
tailed
Hirundo daurica, see Swallow, Red-
rumped
rupestris, see Martin, Crag
rustica, see Swallow
Hjorth, Ingemar, the lek of the Black
Grouse, 116-20, plates 13-20
Index to volume 6y
Hobby, eating wasps, 229
Hogg, Raymond H., note on Great
Black-backed Gull attacking
Common Gull, 242-3
Holland, T. R., note on behaviour of
Long-eared Owls in presence of
dog, 212-3
Holyoak, D. I\, note on high incidence
of plumage abnormalities in London
birds, 122-4
Hosking, Eric, more examples of the
best recent work by British bird-
photographers, 197-9, plates 29-36;
photograph of Common Tern alight-
ing at Avocet’s nest, plate 22; of
Temminck’s Horned Lark, plates
69^70
Hudson, Robert, review of Zink: Der
ZUS Europdischer Singvogel, part 1 ,
217-8; Allen’s Gallinulc in Britain
and the Palearctic, 405-13; see also
News and comment
Hughes, S. W. M., note on Tree Pipit
breeding habitats in Sussex, 390-1
Hume, R. A., and Grant, P. J., the
upperwing pattern of adult Common
and Arctic Terns, 133-6, plates 21-24
, , and Lansdown, P. G.,
Mediterranean Gulls at Blackpill,
Glamorgan, 17-24
Hydroprogne caspia, see Tern, Caspian
Ibis, Glossy, importation of, 190;
accepted record 1973, 315-6
, Sacred, untidy plumage, 187
Icterus galbula, see Oriole, Baltimore
Ingram, Collingwood, note on possible
functions of the tail spots in the
Woodcock, 475-6, plate 65a
Ixobrychus minutus, see Bittern, Little
Jackdaw, status on farmland, 62, 69;
food-hiding, 215; eating wasps, 229;
prey of Long-eared Owl, 369
Jay, young Cuckoo’s reaction to, 27;
status on farmland, 69; food-burying,
215; eating wasps, 224-5, 229; prey
of Long-eared Owl, 367; numbers in
Regent’s Park 1959-68, 453, 460;
breeding success in Regent’s Park,
463-4
Johnson, C. D. N., Venables, J. D., and
Williams, G. A., field notes on the
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper, 351-2, plate
50
541
Jones, W. E., note on territorial display
by Sparrowhawks, 239-42
Jynx torquilla, see Wryneck
Kestrel, status on farmland, 69; winter-
ing in East Africa, 72; oiled by
Fulmar, 298; taking prey from
Short-eared Owl, 474-5
, Lesser, wintering in East Africa,
72, plate 9; eating wasps, 229;
accepted records 1973, 319-20
Kettle, R. H., note on Blue Tit laying
and hatching egg in substitute site
with no nest material, 78-9
Ketupa zeyloneruis, see Fish-owl, Brown
Keymer, I. F., letter on gapeworms in
waders, 441-2
King, Bernard, note on aerial plunge-
diving by Shags and Manx Shear-
waters, 77; on anting-like behaviour
and food of Wryneck, 388; on foot-
paddling behaviour of Pied-billed
Grebes, 439; on Ross’s Gull in
Hampshire foot-paddling to disturb
organisms, 477-8; on male Cuckoo
using plant material in display, 515
, and Marjorie, note on
nocturnal feeding by Pied Wagtails
in winter, 303
Kingfisher, mobbed by Swallow, 355
Kington, B. L., note on Little Ringed
Plover with red legs, 210
Kirtland, C. A. E., note on Bearded
Tit with abnormal leg coloration,
356
Kite, Black, importation of, 185; worn
tail-feathers, 188
, Black-winged, prey removed by
Lanner, 25
Kittiwake, attacked by Mediterranean
Gull, 24; possibly oiled by Fulmar,
298; predation and breeding adapta-
tions, 414
Koch, Ludwig, obituary, 472-4
Lanius collurio, see Shrike, Red-backed
excubitor, see Shrike, Great Grey
minor, see Shrike, Lesser Grey
schach, see Shrike, Rufous-backed
senator, see Shrike, Woodchat
vittatus, see Shrike, Bay-backed
Lanner, feeding by piracy, 25-6, plate
4a
Lansdown. P. G., see Hume, R. A.
542
Lapwing, egg-weights on farmland,
45, 62, 69; nesting associations with
Redshank and Snipe, 82; prey of
Long-eared Owl, 369; gapeworm
infestation, 442
Lark, Horned, see Lark, Shore
, Shore, letters on possible breeding
in Scotland, 127; photographic study,
502-11, plates 68, 69a, 71
, Short-toed, accepted records
1973, 330
Temminck’s Horned, photo-
graphic study, 505-11, plates 696-70
Larus argentatus, see Gull, Herring
atricilla, see Gull, Laughing
californicus, see Gull, California
canus, see Gull, Common
delawarensis, see Gull, Ring-billed
fuscus, see Gull, Lesser Black-
backed
marinus, see Gull, Great Black-
backed
melanocephalus, see Gull, Mediter-
ranean
minutus, see Gull, little
Philadelphia, see Gull, Bonaparte’s
ridibundus, see Gull, Black-headed
Laterallus leucopyrrhus , see Rail, Southern
White-breasted
Lea, David, review of Nethersole-
Thompson and Watson: The Cairn-
gorms, 479-80
Limicola falcinellus, see Sandpiper,
Broad-billed
Limnodromus scolopaceus, see Dowitcher,
Long-billed
Limosa lapponica, see Godwit, Bar-tailed
Linnet, status on farmland, 56, 62, 69;
loss of plumage colour in captivity,
188; prey of Long-eared Owl, 367;
numbers in Regent’s Park, 453, 459;
breeding success in Regent’s Park,
464
Locustella lanceolata, see Warbler, Lan-
ceolated
luscinioides, see Warbler, Savi’s
naevia, see Warbler, Grasshopper
Lord, John, letter on scope of British
Birds, 30
Loxia curvirostra, see Crossbill
leucoptera, see Crossbill, Two-
barred
Luscinia calliope, see Rubythroat,
Siberian
luscinia, see Nightingale, Thrush
Index to volume 6y
Luscinia megarhynchos, see Nightingale
svecica svecica, see Bluethroat, Red-
spotted
Lyrurus tetrix, see Grouse, Black
McGinn, D. B., photograph of White-
billed Diver, plate 41c
Magpie, status on farmland, 62, 69;
eating wasps, 224-5, 229
, Azure- winged, importation of,
191 ; photograph, plate 35b
Mallard, status on farmland, 69;
polymorphism in urban areas, 124;
egg found in Buzzard’s nest, 203;
taking wasp, 226; numbers in
Regent’s Park 1959-68, 453-5, 459;
breeding success in Regent’s Park,
463
Martin, Crag, wintering behaviour in
Gibraltar, 376-87, plate 55; measure-
ments, 386-7
, House, status on farmland, 62,
69, with Crag Martins at Gibraltar,
379; roosting in reed-beds questioned,
5*8-9
, Sand, mobbed by Swallow, 355;
with Crag Martins at Gibraltar, 379
Mather, John R., letter on oiled sea-
birds successfully cleaning their
plumage, 483-4
, , see Burn, David M.
Mayo, A. L. W., letter on wader
nesting associations, 82
Meiklejohn, Matthew Fontaine Maury,
obituary, 469-72, plate 67
Melanitta perspicillata, see Scoter, Surf
Melopsiltacus undulatus, see Budgerigar
Melospiza melodia, see Sparrow, Song
Merganser, Red-breasted, aerial
plunge-diving, 78
Mergus senator, see Merganser, Red-
breasted
Merops apiaster, see Bee-eater
bullocki, see Bee-eater, Red-
throated
superciliosus, see Bee-eater, Blue-
cheeked
Micropalama himantopus, see Sandpiper,
Stilt
Migration: Palearctic birds in East
Africa, 70-6, plates 5-12; Gannet,
89-103; Cape Gannet, 101; Austral-
ian Gannet, 101-2
Milne-Redhead, E., letter on county
boundary changes, 218-9
Index to volume 6y
Milvus migrant, see Kite, Black
Mitchell, K. D. G., letter on feral
parrakeets and control of introduc-
tions, 484
Monticola cinclorhynchus, see Thrush,
Blue-headed Rock
rufwenlris, see Thrush, Chestnut-
bellied Rock
saxatilis, see Thrush, Rock
solitarius, see Thrush, Blue Rock
Moorhen, status on farmland, 69;
breeding behaviour and biology,
■05-15; 137“58> P^te 25; prey of
Long-eared Owl, 368-9; numbers in
Regent’s Park 1959-68, 453, 457,
459; breeding success in Regent’s
Park, 463
Morgan, Robert, note on survival of
young Long-tailed Tits in exposed
nest, 79
Motacilla alba, see Wagtail, Pied
citreola, see Wagtail, Citrine
Jlava, see Wagtail, Yellow
beema, see Wagtail, Sykes’s
feldegg, see Wagtail, Black-
headed
Jlava, see Wagtail, Blue-
headed
Jlavissima, see Wagtail, Yellow
lutea, see Wagtail, Eastern
Yellow
thunbergi, see Wagtail, Grey-
headed
Murton, R. K., and Westwood, N. J.,
some effects of agricultural change
on the English avifauna, 41-69; letter
on effects of agricultural change on
birds, 485-7
Muscicapa latirostris, see Flycatcher,
Brown
striata, see Flycatcher, Spotted
Myophonus caeruleus, see Thrush, Whistl-
ing
Naunton, C. R., photograph of White-
rumped Sandpiper, plate 49b
News and comment: Belgian open
season for bird trapping, breeding
of Peregrines in captivity, feral
parrakeets near London, county
natural history societies and
boundary changes, 32-4; tern protec-
tion, NCC appointments, mbe for
H. G. Hurrell, rare pheasants
returned to wild, power plant
543
fuelled by peat, obituary of Dr M. C.
Radford, new BTO publication,
®3"4> Eiders and oil pollution,
North-east Greenland National Park,
Shetland Bird Club, RSPB staff
moves, birds of Persian Gulf,
Houbara Bustard research cancelled,
reprieve for Foulness? 128-30;
1 awny Owls and Pheasants, Norwich
bird strike, Foulness respite,
obituaries of R. J. Partridge and R. P.
Bagnall-Oakeley, parrakeets in Lon-
don area, pesticides in Peregrine
eggs from 1948, 173-5; WWF
expenditure, RSPB Film Unit
awards, Whitethroats and arbo-
viruses, Salmonella in wild birds,
some continental conservation news,
248-9; attempts of Wood Sandpiper
to recolonise Aleutian Islands, cbe
for David Attenborough and mbe for
Mrs Grace Hickling, projected book
on birdwatching for disabled, inter-
national collaboration among egg-
collectors, 304-5; new RSPB dock-
land reserve, release of defence lands,
National cagebird exhibition, IUCN/
WWF sponsored coins, NCC survey
of Channel Tunnel sites, The Birds
of Morecambe Bay and lakeland
Birds, 397-8; growth of British and
Irish list, bird species new to science,
British Library of Wildlife Sounds,
Brent Goose research, recent appoint-
ments, 444-7; rookery census, future
of Foulness, Steep Holm to be
reserve, new BTO ringing guide,
Magellan oil spillage, register of
birds bred in captivity (A vie. Mag.),
487-9; Welsh Oystercatcher cull,
sewage farm survey, egg transplants
for threatened raptors in USA, air
strike hazard in Estonia, Dollard
reprieve, some regional publica-
tions, 525-7
Nicholson, E. M., review of Potter and
Sargent: Pedigree: Words from Nature,
126-7
Nightingale, present on Suffolk farm-
land, 60
, Thrush, accepted records 1973,
33i
Nightjar, prey of Long-eared Owl, 369
Niltava tickelliae, see Flycatcher, Tickell’s
Blue
544
Notornis mantelli, see Takahe
Nucifraga caryocatactes , see Nutcracker
Numenius arquata, see Curlew
phaeopus, see Whimbrel
Nutcracker, eating wasps, 229
Nuthatch, release of imported birds,
183
Nyctea scandiaca, see Owl, Snowy
Nycticorax nycticorax, see Heron, Night
Obituaries: R. P. Bagnall-Oakeley, 174;
Ludwig Koch, mbe (1881-1974),
472-4; Matthew Fontaine Maury
Meiklejohn, ma (1913-1974), 469-72,
plate 67; R. J. Partridge, 174
Oena capensis, see Dove, Namaqua
Oenanthe hispanica, see Wheatear, Black-
eared
isabellina, see Wheatear, Isabelline
leucura, see Wheatear, Black
oenanthe, see Wheatear
pleschanka, see Wheatear, Pied
Oreel, G. J., note on identification of
Roseate Terns, 167-8; on Sharp-
tailed Sandpiper with flesh-coloured
legs and feet, 2 1 1 ; letter on eye
colour of the Hen Harrier, 5 1 7-8
Oriole, Baltimore, importation of, 192
Osprey, possibly oiled by Fulmar, 298
Otis tarda, see Bustard, Great
Otus bakkamoena, see Owl, Collared
Scops
glabripes, see Owl, Bare-
toed Scops
leucotis, see Owl, White-faced
Scops
scops, see Owl, Scops
Ovenbird, accepted record 1973, 337
Owl, Bare-toed Scops, importation of,
193
, Barn, voice, 493-501
, Collared Scops, importation of,
193
, Eagle, importation of, 193
, Little, status on farmland, 69;
eating wasps, 229; prey of Long-
eared Owl, 368-9
, Long-eared, behaviour in
presence of dog, 212-3; oiled by
Fulmar, 298-9; food in Britain and
Ireland, 361-9
, Scops, importation of, 193;
accepted record 1973, 328
, Short-eared, oiled by Fulmar,
298; prey taken by Kestrel, 474-5
Index to volume 67
Owl, Snowy, accepted records 1973,
328
, Tawny, status on farmland, 69;
numbers in Regent’s Park 1959-68,
453; breeding success in Regent’s
Park, 464
, White-faced Scops, importation
of, 193
Oxyura jamaicensis, see Duck, Ruddy
Oystercatcher, rearing success on
farmland, 45, 60
Pagophila eburnea, see Gull, Ivory
Palmar, C. E., photograph of Black
Grouse at lek, plate 14b
Pandion haliaetus, see Osprey
Panurus biarmicus, see Tit, Bearded
Parrakeet, Ringneck, breeding in
wild in England, 1 91 ; danger of
feral populations in Britain, 393-4,
484-5
Partridge, status on farmland, 47, 62,
69; eating wasps, 229; young as
prey of Long-eared Owl, 368-9
, Red-legged, status on farmland,
47, 69; photograph, plate 36b
Parus ater, see Tit, Coal
caeruleus, see Tit, Blue
cristatus, see Tit, Crested
major, see Tit, Great
montanus, see Tit, Willow
— — — palustris, see Tit, Marsh
xanthogenys, see Tit, Yellow-
cheeked
Passer domeslicus, see Sparrow, House
montanus, see Sparrow, Tree
Passerina amoena, see Bunting, Lazuli
ciris, see Bunting, Painted
lechlancheri, see Bunting, Rainbow
Paton, William S., photograph of
Canada Goose, plate 30b
Pelecanus crispus, see Pelican, Dalmatian
onocrotalus, see Pelican, White
Pelican, Dalmatian, importation of, 190
, White, importation of, 190
Pennie, Ian D., obituary of Matthew
Fontaine Maury Meiklejohn, 469-72,
plate 67
Perdix perdix, see Partridge
Peregrine, oiled by Fulmar, 298-9;
preying on Crag Martins, 378
Pernis apivorus, see Buzzard, Honey
Petronia xanthocollis, see Sparrow,
Y ellow-throated
Phalacrocorax carbo, see Shag
Index to volume 67
Phalarope, Grey, feeding on earth-
worms, 352
, Wilson’s, accepted records 1973,
325
Phalaropus fulicarius, see Phalarope,
Grey
tricolor, see Phalarope, Wilson’s
Phasianus colchicus, see Pheasant
Pheasant, status on farmland, 69;
young as prey of Long-eared Owl,
368-9; attacked by Hen Harrier,
51 1
Pheucticus ludovicianus, see Grosbeak,
Rose-breasted
Phillips, John, letter on oiled seabirds
successfully cleaning their plumage,
483-4
Philomachus pugnax, see Ruff
Phoenicopterus spp, see Flamingo
Phoenicurus ochruros, sec Redstart, Black
phoenicurus, see Redstart
Phylloscopus bonelli, see Warbler,
Bonelli’s
borealis, sec Warbler, Arctic
collybita, see ChifTchafT
proregulus, see Warbler, Pallas’s
schwarzi, sec Warbler, Radde’s
trochiloides, see Warbler, Greenish
trochilus, see Warbler, Willow
Pica pica, see Magpie
Picozzi, N., and Weir, D., breeding
biology of the Buzzard in Speyside,
•99-2io
, , see Watson, A.
Picus viridis, see Woodpecker, Green
Pigeon, feral, polymorphism in urban
area, 124; deformed toes, 188;
numbers in Regent’s Park 1959-68,
451-2, 455, 460-1
Pipit, Meadow, status on farmland, 69
, Olive-backed, accepted record
•973, 333
, Red-throated, wintering in East
.Africa, 73-4, plate 1 1 b ; accepted
record 1973, 335
, Tawny, accepted records 1973,
334-5; accepted record 1971, 342;
mobbed by Swallow, 355
, Tree, status on farmland, 62, 69;
breeding habitats in Sussex, 390-1
Piranga spp, See Tanager
olivacea, see Tanager, Scarlet
rubra, see Tanager, Summer
Platalea alba, see Spoonbill, African
leucorodia, see Spoonbill
545
Plectrophenax nivalis, see Bunting, Snow
Plegadis falcinellus, see Ibis, Glossy
Plover, Golden, status on farmland, 69
, Lesser Golden, accepted records
•973. 320
, Little Ringed, with red legs, 210
, Ringed, unusual nest defence
behaviour, 78; nesting association
with Little Tern, 82
, Sociable, accepted record 1973,
320
, Spur-winged, importation of,
•9*
, Three-banded, importation of,
•91
Pluvialis apricaria, see Plover, Golden
dominica, see Plover, Lesser Golden
Pochard, numbers in Regent’s Park
•959-88, 453, 459; breeding success
in Regent’s Park, 463
Podiceps cristatus, see Grebe, Great
Crested
Podilymbus podiceps, see Grebe, Pied-
billed
Polysticta stelleri, see Eider, Stellrr’s
Porphyrio porphyrio, see Gallinule, Purple
Porphyrula alleni, see Gallinule, Allen’s
Porter, S. C., photograph of Red-
legged Partridge, plate 36b
Porzana Carolina, see Rail, Sora
parva, see Crake, Little
Pratincole, accepted record 1973, 325
, Black-winged, eating wasps, 229
, Collared, accepted records 1973,
325
Pratincoles, importation of, 191
Prunella modularis, see Dunnock
Psittacula krameri , see Parrakeet, Ring-
neck
Piiffinus assimilis, see Shearwater, Little
Iherminieri, see Shearwater, Audu-
bon's
puffinus. see Shearwater, Manx
Pyrrhula pyrrhula, see Bullfinch
Quail, importation of, 181
, Bobwhitc, hatching period, 146
Qiielea quelea, see Quclea, Red-billed
Quelea, Red-billed, prey of Steppe
Eagle, 393
Rabbitts, Brian, note on leg colour of
Greenshank, 210-1
546
Radford, A. P., note on Carrion Crows
eating oily fish paper, 355; on
Starling feeding lavender leaves to
juvenile, 440
Rail, Clapper, only egg nests built, 153
, King, display postures compared
with Moorhen’s, 1 1 2 ; only egg nests
built, 153
, Sora, importation of, 190; only
egg nests built, 153; accepted record
I973> 320
, Southern White-breasted, juve-
niles feeding younger siblings, 15 1
, Virginia, only egg nests built,
153
, Water, status on farmland, 69;
courtship-feeding, 1 1 2
Rallus aquaticus, see Rail, Water
elegans, see Rail, King
limicola, see Rail, Virginia
Ramirez, Adoracion, see Herrera,
Carlos M.
Rarities Committee: Report on rare
birds in Great Britain in 1973 (with
additions for ten previous years),
310-48, plates 45-50; the reasons for
record rejection, 349-50
Raven, food-burying, 215; oiled by
Fulmar, 298-300
Razorbill, oiled by Fulmar, 298;
melanism in, 392
Recorders, List of county and regional,
253-6
Recurvirostra avosetta, see Avocet
Redpoll, feeding from floating vegeta-
tion, 21; status on farmland, 56, 62,
69; prey of Long-eared Owl, 369
Redshank, nesting associations with
Lapwing, 82
Redstart, eating wasps, 225-6, 229
, Black, breeding in new town
centres, 394-5
Redwing, status on farmland, 69;
release of imported birds, 183; num-
bers in Regent’s Park 1959-68, 459
Regulus ignicapillus, see Firecrest
regulus, see Goldcrest
Reports: October, 34-40; November,
85-8; December, 130-2; January,
175-6; February, 219-20; March
and winter summary, 250-2; April,
305-8; May, 357-60; June and
spring summary, 398-404; July,
447-8; August, 489-92; September,
527-32
Index to volume 6y
Requests for information : influx of
Rough-legged Buzzards, 84; colour-
ringed and dye-marked waders
from Greenland, 219; colour-ringed
Great Black-backed Gulls, checklist
of the birds of Gibraltar, 396
Reviews :
Alexander: Seventy Years of Bird-
watching, 245-6
Batten et al . : Birdwatchers' Year, 80-1
Brien: Avifaune de Bretagne, 522-3
Burkhard: Urvogel, 482-3
Burton: Owls of the World, 480-1
Campbell : The Countryman Bird Book,
244-5
Cramp, Bourne and Saunders: The
Seabirds of Britain and Ireland, 5 1 9-20
Glutz von Blotzheim: Handbuch der
Vogel Mitteleuropas, vol. 5 .• Galli-
formes and Gruiformes, 1 72-3
Gooders: The Bird-watchers' Book,
521-2
Hosking and Gooders : Wildlife Photo-
graphy, 80-1
Matvejev and Vasic: Catalogus Faunae
Jugoslaviae. IV/j. Aves, 523-4
Nethersole-Thompson and Watson:
The Cairngorms, 479-80
Parrack: The Naturalist in Majorca,
243-4
Parslow: Breeding Birds of Britain and
Ireland, 216-7
Porter et al.: Flight Identification of
European Raptors, 520-1
Potter and Sargent: Pedigree: Words
from Nature, 126-7
Sharrock: Scarce Migrant Birds in
Britain and Ireland, 481-2
Tinbergen: The Animal in its World,
125-6
Walkinshaw: Cranes of the World,
480-1
Zink: Der fug Europaischer Singvogel,
part r, 217-8
Reynolds, J. F., note on piracy by
Lanner, 25-6, plate 4a; Palearctic
birds in East Africa, 70-6, plates
5-12; note on feeding association
between Marsh Sandpiper and dab-
bling ducks, 477
Rhodopechys githaginea, see Finch,
Trumpeter
Rhodostelhia rosea, see Gull, Ross’s
Richmondena cardinalis, sec Cardinal
Index to volume 6y
Riparia riparia, see Martin, Sand
Rissa tridactyla , see Kittiwake
Robbins, C. Stephen, note on probable
interbreeding of Common and
Roseate Terns, 168-70, plates 26-7
Robin, status on farmland, 69; killed
by another, 121-2; numbers in
Regent’s Park 1959-68, 453-4, 457,
460-1; breeding success in Regent’s
Park, 463-4; female singing in
winter, 517
, American, importation of, 191
Robson, R. W., note on food-burying
and recovery by Rook, 214-5
Rogers, M., photograph of Alpine
Swift, plate 49a
Roller, numbers imported, 180, 1 9 1 ;
eating wasps, 229; accepted records
>973. 330
, Indian, importation of, 191
Rolls, Julian C., note on domed nest of
Chaffinch, 27; on Common Terns
roosting on water, 120-1
, and Margaret, note on
Red-breasted Mergansers diving
from the air, 78
Rook, status on farmland, 50-2, 57,
68-9; feeding methods on suspended
fat, 213-4; food-burying and re-
covery, 214-5; eating wasps, 224,
229; direct head-scratching in
flight, 243
Roscfinch, Scarlet, importation of,
192; accepted records 1973, 337-8
Rowe, Peter, note on Gannet nest with
two chicks, 25, plate 1
Rubythroat, Himalayan, importa-
tion of, 192
, Siberian, importation of, 192
Ruff, wintering in East Africa, 72-3,
plate 10b
Ruttledge, R. F., note on unprece-
dented numbers of Little Gulls in
Ireland, 166-7; on Woodpigeons
cooing while on the ground, 440;
on abnormal numbers of Little
Gulls in Ireland in summer, 514
Sage, Bryan L., note on large flock of
Hooded Crows in Suffolk, 355-6;
photograph of Long-tailed Skuas,
plate 33a
Sandford, John E., note on Greenfinch
settling on the sea, 79-80
547
Sandpiper, Baird’s, accepted records
*973, 322; accepted record 1965, 340
, Broad-billed, accepted records
■973. 324-5 ; accepted record 1972,
343
, Buff-breasted, accepted records
>973, 324> plate 49c
, Common, mobbed by Swallow,
355; eating butterflies, 440; photo-
graph of juvenile, plate 31a
, Green, wintering in East Africa,
72, plate 10a
, Least, field-characters, 8-15,
plates 2-3
, Marsh, feeding association with
dabbling ducks, 477
, Pectoral, photographs, plate 51
, Semipalmated, field-characters,
6-7, 10-15, plate 2; accepted record
>970, 34*
, Sharp-tailed, with flesh-coloured
legs and feet, 2 1 1 ; accepted records
>973. 323, 35'*2, plate 50
, Spotted, accepted records 1973,
322
, Stilt, accepted record 1973, 321
, Terek, accepted records 1973,
322
, Upland, accepted record 1973,
321
, Western, field-characters, 7-8,
10-15, plates 2-3; accepted records
>973, 323
, White-rumped. accepted records
>973, 322-3, plate 49b
Scaup, head plumage of female, 302-3
Schmitz, Arne, photographs of Black
Grouse at lek, 15a, b, 1 7d. 20b, c
Schouten, Hans, photograph of Com-
mon Tern, plate 24b
Scolopax rusticola, see Woodcock
Scoter, Surf, accepted record 1973, 317
Scott, R. E., note on two female
Stone Curlews laying in one nest,
165-6, plate 28a
Seiurus aurocapillus, see Ovenbird
Serin, importation of, 192; accepted
records 1973, 337 J both sexes
singing, 517
Serinus canaria, see Canary, Domestic
mozambicus , see Finch, Green
Singing
serinus, see Serin
Shag, aerial plunge-diving, 77
Shannon, G. R., studies of less familiar
548
birds: 174 — Shore Lark and Tem-
minck’s Horned Lark, 502- 1 1 , plates
68-71
Sharrock, J. T. R., note on House
Sparrows acquiring a feeding tech-
nique, 356; letter on the origin of
British Aquatic Warblers, 443-4
, , see Bonham, P. F.
Shearwater, Audubon’s, melanism in,
392
, Cory’s, accepted records 1 973, 3 1 3
, Little, accepted records 1973, 313
, Manx, aerial plunge-diving, 77;
melanic specimen of Californian
race, 392
Shelduck, present on Suffolk farmland,
60
Shoveler, present on Suffolk farmland,
60
Shrike, Bay-backed, importation of, 1 92
, Great Grey, importation of, 1 92 ;
feeding on wasps, 223, 227, 229
, Lesser Grey, feeding on wasps,
223, 227, 229; accepted records 1973,
335-6
, Red-backed, feeding on wasps,
223, 227, 229; factors affecting
status on farmland, 486
, Rufous-backed, importation of,
192
, Woodchat, accepted records
1973, 336
Simmons, K. E. L., adaptations in the
reproductive biology of the Great
Crested Grebe, 413-37, plates 56-62;
review of Tinbergen: The Animal in
its World, 125-6; note on direct
head-scratching by Rook in flight,
243; on Starling learning to use its
feet while feeding, 391-2; letter on
Cuckoos and Reed Warblers, 442-3
Sitta europaea, see Nuthatch
Skua, Long-tailed, photograph, plate
33a
Skylark, status on farmland, 62, 69;
prey of Long-eared Owl, 367
Slade, Brian E., note on large spring
roost of Whimbrels in Bridgwater
Bay, 513-4
Smith, F. R., report on rare birds in
Great Britain in 1973 (with addi-
tions for ten previous years), 310-48,
plates 45-50
Smith, John and Margaret, note on
behaviour of Ringed Plover in
Index to volume 67
defence of nest, 78
Smith, Peter, note on Great Spotted
Woodpecker tapping on window
pane, 388
Smith, Robert T., photographs of
Black Grouse at lek, plates 14a, c,
15c, 17a, b, i8-2oa
Snipe, present on Suffolk farmland, 60 ;
nesting associations with Lapwing,
82
, Great, accepted records 1973, 321
Somateria mollissima, see Eider
— — spectabilis, see Eider, King
Soothill, Eric, photograph of female
Shore Lark, plate 69a
Sparrow, House, status on farmland,
62, 69; approaching fighting Robins,
122; frequency of plumage abnor-
malities, 123; acquired nut-feeding
technique, 356; prey of Long-eared
Owl, 366-8; numbers in Regent’s
Park 1959-68, 453, 455; ‘hawking’
for flies, 486
, Orange-billed, female singing
during incubation, 517
, Song, female singing, 5 1 7
, Tree, status on farmland, 69;
frequency of plumage abnormalities,
123
, White-throated, accepted record
1973. 340
, Yellow- throated, importation of,
192
Sparrowhawk, territorial display, 239-
42; possibly oiled by Fulmar, 298;
photograph, plate 35a
Speckmann, Michael, letter on scope
of British Birds and seasonal analyses
of records, 28-30
Speight, M. C. D., ants in Wryneck
faeces identified, 388-9
Spencer, Robert, review of Parslow:
Breeding Birds of Britain and Ireland.
216-7
Spoonbill, importation of, 190
, African, importation of, 190
Starling, status on farmland, 62, 69;
frequency of plumage abnormalities,
123-4; eating wasps, 229; prey of
Long-eared Owl, 367; using feet in
feeding, 391-2; feeding lavender
leaves to juvenile, 440; feeding
dandelion flower to juvenile, 440;
taking fern and sage to nest, 441 ;
numbers in Regent’s Park 1959-68,
Index to volume 6y
452-3> 455! breeding success in
Regent’s Park, 463; ‘hawking’ for
flies, 486
Starling, Rose-coloured, loss of plumage
colour in captivity, 188; accepted
records 1973, 336
Stercorarius longicaudus, see Skua, Long-
tailed
Sterna albifrons, see Tern, Little
dougallii, see Tern, Roseate
hirundo, see Tern, Common
paradisaea, see Tern, Arctic
Stilt, Black-winged, importation of,
191 ; accepted record 1973, 325
Stint, Little, field-characters, 4-5,
10-15, plate 2
, Long-toed, field-characters, 9-15,
plates 2-3
, Red-necked, field-characters, 6,
10-15, plate 2
, Temminck’s, field-characters,
9-15, plate 2
Stork, Black, importation of, 190;
wing-spreading while feeding, 236-7
, White, wintering in East Africa,
70-1, plate 7a; importation of, 190;
eating wasps, 229; accepted records
•973. 3*5 ; accepted record 1972, 343
Streptopelia orientalis, see Dove, Rufous
Turtle
roseogrisea, see Dove, Barbary
turtur, see Dove, Turtle
Strix aluco, see Owl, Tawny
Sturms roseus, see Starling, Rose-
coloured
vulgaris, see Starling
Sula bassana, see Gannet
capensis, see Gannet, Cape
leucogaster, see Booby, Brown
senator, see Gannet, Australian
Summers, G., note on Bar-tailed
Godwit feeding on open heath, 303;
on Swallow persistently mobbing
Tawny Pipit, 355
Swallow, status on farmland, 62, 69;
mobbing Tawny Pipit and other
birds, 355; prey of Long-eared Owl,
369; with Crag Martins at Gibraltar,
379; heavy mortality during cold
weather in winter quarters, 385;
breeding in Regent’s Park, 453, 464;
parasitised by Cuckoo, 478, plate 65b
, Red-rumped, accepted records
1973, 330; with Crag Martins at
Gibraltar, 379
549
Swan, Mute, numbers breeding in
Regent’s Park 1959-68, 453
, W hooper, photograph of herd,
plate 36a
Swift, status on farmland, 69; numbers
breeding in Regent’s Park 1959-68,
453; photograph, plate 34a
> Alpine, eating wasps, 229;
accepted records 1973, 329, plate 49a
, Little, accepted record 1973,
328-9
, Needle-tailed, eating wasps, 229
Sylvia atricapilla, see Blackcap
borin, see Warbler, Garden
cantillans, see Warbler, Subalpine
communis, see Whitethroat
curruca, see Whitethroat, Lesser
melanocephala, see Warbler, Sardin-
ian
nisoria, see Warbler, Barred
Tachybaptus novaehollandiae, see Grebe,
Black-throated Little
ruficollis, see Grebe, Little
Tadorna tadorna, see Shelduck
Takahe, nest-like structures, 153
Tanagcr, attacking wasps’ nests, 227
, Scarlet, importation of, 192
, Summer, importation of, 192
Tarsiger cyanurus, see Bluctail, Red-
flanked
Teal, present on Suffolk farmland. 60
, Blue-winged, accepted records
1973- 3*6
, Green- winged, accepted records
1973- 3ib
, Hottentot, Marsh Sandpiper
feeding in association with, 477
Tern, Arctic, upperwing pattern, 1 33-6,
plates 21, 23b, 24a; photograph,
plate 33b; field-characters of juvenile,
246-7
. Black, mobbed by Swallow, 355
, Caspian, accepted records 1973.
327
, Common, roosting on water,
1 20-1; upperwing pattern. 133-6.
plates 22, 23a, 24b: probable inter-
breeding with Roseate. 168-70,
plates 26-7; field-characters of
juvenile, 246-7
, Gull-billed, accepted records
•973- 327
, Little, nesting association with
Ringed Plover, 82
550
Tern, Roseate, upperwing pattern, 136;
field-characters, 167-8; probable
interbreeding with Common, 168-70,
plates 26-7
, Whiskered, accepted records
1973, 327
, White-winged Black, accepted
records 1973, 326-7
Thomas, B. W., photographs of Long-
billed Dowitcher, plate 47
Thomson, A. Landsborough, the migra-
tion of the Gannet : a reassessment of
British and Irish ringing data, 89-103
Threskiornis aethiopicus, see Ibis, Sacred
Thrush, Blue Rock, importation of, 191
, Blue-headed Rock, importation
of, 191
, Chestnut-bellied Rock, importa-
tion of, 191
, Mistle, status on farmland, 69;
numbers in Regent’s Park 1959-68,
453-4, 457, 460-1; breeding success
in Regent’s Park, 463-4
, Rock, importation of, 191;
eating wasps, 229
, Song, status on farmland, 57, 69;
prey of Long-eared Owl, 367;
numbers in Regent’s Park 1959-68,
453-4, 456-8, 460-1 ; breeding success
in Regent’s Park, 463-4
, Whistling, importation of, 191
, White’s, accepted record 1973,
33i
Tit, Bearded, abnormal leg coloration,
356
, Blue, status on farmland, 62, 69;
young reared in substitute site
without nest material, 78-9;
approaching fighting Robins, 122;
avoiding wasps, 224; eating bees,
224; prey of Long-eared Owl, 369;
numbers in Regent’s Park 1959-68,
453-4, 457, 460-1; breeding success
in Regent’s Park, 463-5
, Coal, status on farmland, 62, 69;
prey of Long-eared Owl, 369;
numbers in Regent’s Park 1959-68,
453-4, 458; breeding success in
Regent’s Park, 464
, Crested, importation of, 191
, Great, status on farmland, 42-3,
69; feeding on wasps and bees,
223-4, 229; prey of Long-eared
Owl, 367; numbers in Regent’s
Park 1959-68, 453-4, 457, 460-1;
Index to volume 6y
breeding success in Regent’s Park,
463-6; commencing clutch before
lining nest, 478-9
Tit, Long-tailed, status on farmland,
69 ; survival of young in exposed
nest, 79
, Marsh, status on farmland, 69
, Willow, status on farmland, 62,
69; prey of Long-eared Owl, 369
, Yellow-cheeked, importation of,
Tozer, R. B., letter on feral parrakeets
and control of introductions, 484-5
Trap-Lind, lb, photographs of Icterine
Warbler, plates 52-4
Treecreeper, prey of Long-eared Owl,
369; feeding on fat, 515-6
, Short-toed, difficulties of identi-
fication, 330-1
Tribonyx mortierii, see Hen, Tasmanian
Native
Tringa flavipes , see Yellowlegs, Lesser
hypoleucos, see Sandpiper, Common
macular ■ a, see Sandpiper, Spotted
nebularia, see Greenshank
ochropus, see Sandpiper, Green
stagnatilis, see Sandpiper, Marsh
totanus, see Redshank
Troglodytes troglodytes, see Wren
Tryngites subruficollis, see Sandpiper,
Buff-breasted
Turdus iliacus, see Redwing
merula, see Blackbird
migratorius, see Robin, American
philomelos, see Thrush, Song
pilaris, see Fieldfare
viscivorus, see Thrush, Mistle
Tysk, Gosta, photographs of Black
Grouse at lek, plates 13, 16
Tysk, Tony, photograph of Black
Grouse at lek, plate 1 7c
Tyto alba, see Owl, Barn
Uria aalge, see Guillemot
Urry, David and Katie, photographs of
Arctic Terns, plates 21, 23b
Vanellus spinosus, see Plover, Spur-
winged
vanellus, see Lapwing
Venables, J. D., see Johnson, C. D. N.
Vielliard, Jacques, the Purple Gallinule
in the marismas of the Guadalquivir,
230-6, plates 37-40
Index to volume 6y
Voice: Woodpigeon, 440; Barn Owl,
493*5° 1; Serin, 517
Voous, K. H., review of Glutz von
Blotzheim : Handbuch der Vogel Mittel-
europas, vol. 5: Galliformes and Grui-
formes, 172-3
Vulture, Griffon, mobbed by Crag
Martins, 379
Wagtail, Black-headed, wintering in
East Africa, 74-5, plate 12a
, Blue-headed, wintering in East
Africa, 74
, Citrine, importation of, 192;
accepted record 1973, 335
, Eastern Yellow, wintering in East
Africa, 74-5
, Grey-headed, wintering in East
Africa, 74-5
, Pied, status on farmland, 69;
nocturnal feeding, 303; prey of
Long-eared Owl, 369; numbers in
Regent’s Park 1959-68, 453; breeding
success in Regent’s Park, 464
, Sykes’s, wintering in East Africa,
74-5
, Yellow, races wintering in East
Africa, and doubts on British race,
74-5
Wallace, D. I. M., field identification
of small species in the genus Calidris,
1 - 1 6, plates 2-3; review of Alexander:
Seventy Tears of Bird-watching , 245-6;
the reasons for record rejection,
349-50; note on Rufous Turtle
Dove in Cornwall, 352-4; the birds
of Regent’s Park, London, 1959-68,
449-68, plate 66 ; review of Sharrock :
Scarce Migrant Birds in Britain and
Ireland, 481-2; letter on eye colour of
the Hen Harrier, 518
Warbler, Aquatic, accepted records
1973, 332-3; accepted record 1972:
amendment, 340; accepted record
1972, 343; origin of British migrants,
443-4
, Arctic, accepted records 1973,
334; accepted records 1972, 343
, Barred, escape notified, 185
, Bonelli’s, accepted records 1973,
333*4
, Cetti’s, accepted records 1973,
331-2; accepted record 1971, 342;
accepted records 1972, 343
551
Warbler, Garden, status on farmland,
62, 69; eating wasps, 229
, Grasshopper, oiled by Fulmar,
298-300
, Great Reed, accepted records
1973. 332
, Greenish, accepted records 1973,
333
, Icterine, photographic study,
370-6, plates 52-4
, Lanceolated, accepted record
>973, 332
, Marsh, photograph, plate 29
, Myrtle, accepted record 1973,
336-7
, Pallas’s, accepted record 1972,
343
, Raddc’s, accepted records 1973,
334
, Reed, present on farmland, 60;
parasitisation by Cuckoo, 442-3
, Sardinian, accepted records 1973,
333
, Savi’s, accepted records 1973,
332
, Sedge, status on farmland, 62,
69; singing in rape fields, 389-90;
factors affecting status on farms,
486-7
, Spotted Morning, importation of,
>9i
, Subalpine, numbers imported,
180
, Willow, status on farmland, 69:
breeding in Regent’s Park. 453, 458
Warden, D., note on Great Tit com-
mencing clutch before lining nest.
478-9
Warren. D. R., note on Starling feeding
dandelion flower to juvenile, 440
Washington, D.. note on Rooks feeding
on suspended fat, 213-4
Waters, R. J., note on Common
Sandpiper eating butterflies, 440
Watson, A., Watson, Adam, and
Picozzi, N., letter on proof of
breeding of Shore Larks. 127
Waxwing, confusion over vernacular
names, 171
Weir, D., see Picozzi, X.
Westwood, N. J.. see Murton. R. K.
Wheatear. status on farmland. 69;
wintering in East Africa. 75*6;
prey of Long-eared Owl, 369
, Black, eating wasps, 229
552
Wheatear, Black-eared, accepted record
!973> 33i
, Isabelline, wintering in East
Africa, 75-6, plate 12b
, Pied, wintering in East Africa,
75-6
Whimbrel, large spring roost in
Bridgwater Bay, 513-4
Whitethroat, status on farmland, 57,
62, 69; eating wasps, 229; type of
hedge preferred, 485; factors affect-
ing status on farmland, 486
, Lesser, status on farmland, 62,
69 ; type of hedge preferred, 485
Wiechmann, M., note on egg-laying
by the Great Crested Grebe, 438-9,
plate 63
Wigeon, American, accepted records
1973, 316
Wilde, N. A. J., observations on Wren
rearing young Cuckoo (note), 26-7,
plate 4b
Williams, G. A., see Johnson, C. D. N.
Wood, N. A., the breeding behaviour
and biology of the Moorhen, 104-15,
137-58, plate 25
Woodcock, status on farmland, 69;
function of tail spots, 475-6, plate 65a
Woodpecker, Great Spotted, status on
farmland, 62, 69; eating wasps, 229;
tapping on window pane, 388;
numbers in Regent’s Park, 453, 458;
breeding success in Regent’s Park,
464
, Green, status on farmland, 62, 69;
feeding on wasp larvae, 225, 229;
ant species identified from faeces and
pellets, 388-9
, White-bellied Black, importa-
tion of, 1 91
Index to volume 6y
Woodpigeon, status on farmland, 43-4,
47-9, 53-6> 62> 69; frequency of
plumage abnormalities, 123-4; prey
of Long-eared Owl, 369; cooing on
ground, 440; numbers in Regent’s
Park 1959-68, 452, 455-6, 460-1;
breeding success in Regent’s Park,
463; attacked by Hen Harrier, 51 1
Wren, rearing young Cuckoo, 26-7,
plate 4b; status on farmland, 43, 69;
numbers in Regent’s Park 1959-68,
453-4, 457, 460-1; breeding success
in Regent’s Park, 463-4
Wryneck, eating ants, 388
Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus, see Black-
bird, Yellow-headed
Xenus cinereus, see Sandpiper, Terek
Yeates, George, letter on scope of
British Birds, 31-2
Yellowhammer, status on farmland, 57,
69; prey of Long-eared Owl, 369;
type of hedge preferred, 485
Yellowlegs, Lesser, accepted records
I973> 322
Young, G. H. E., note on Cuckoo
parasitising Swallow, 478, plate 65b;
photograph of Marsh Warbler, plate
29
Youngman, R. E., letter on Black
Redstarts breeding in newly de-
veloped town centres, 394-5
Zonolrichia albicollis, see Sparrow,
White-throated
Zoothera dauma, see Thrush, White’s
Index to photographs in volumes 1-67
Compiled by D. A. Christie
In general, this index covers only photographs of live birds. Entries are in a single
list in systematic order. Numbers in bold type refer to volumes, those in ordinary
type to plates, and those in italics to pages; roman numerals indicate colour plates.
For species included in A Species List of British and Irish Birds (BTO Guide 13,
1971), both vernacular and scientific names and the sequence follow that publica-
tion. For species in the third edition of th e Field Guide (1974) but not on the British
and Irish list, the vernacular and scientific names follow that edition, but the
sequence is generally that of the check-list in the first edition (1954). The names
of other species follow conservative current usage.
We should be grateful if any errors in this index are brought to our notice.
Black-throated Diver Gavia arctica 5 3, 182, 184; 48 40; 57 5b, 47b; 60 49
Great Northern Diver G. immer 9 144-6-, 43 1-9: 58 53a; 61 73c; 63 71b; 64 111b.
77b; 65 33b; 67 41a
White-billed Diver G. adamsii 45 83-43; 48 61-4; 64 Ilia, 81-4; 67 41b
Red-throated Diver G. stellata 7 12-15, ,54-5> *6 3(>-4G 44~5\ 28 293; 31 2, 7/,
78, 81 ; 58 27b; 62 34b; 64 25a; 67 28b
Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus 1 104 ; 50 48; 54 28b; 58 27a; 67 56-63
Red-necked Grebe P. grisegena 50 1-7; 55 42a, 51b; 57 73a: 66 2-5
Slavonian Grebe P. auritus 14 1 ,3, 5, 7; 22 1, 3-4: 33 4-5, 171; 57 47a; 64 47a
Black-necked Grebe P. nigricollis 13 3-10, 148; 18 277; 50 8; 51 17; 53 9-1 1
Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis 13 6; 27 1-2, 35-7; 57 73b; 62 6b
Pied-billed Grebe Podilymbus podiceps 60 35-6
Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophris 46 13: 59 58-6oa; 61 1-4; 65 76b
other albatrosses and Giant Petrel Macronectes giganteus 59 6ol>5
Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis 8 230, 232, 234-6; 27 3; 43 32a: 44 61-3; 52 57-62;
54 -*9b: 58 28a; 65 74a; 66 73a
Cory’s Shearwater Calonectris diomedea 61 20-2; 65 71b
Manx Shearwater Puffinus ptiffinus 13 184 ; 38 5; 58 64; 64 77a
Little Shearwater P. assimilis 51 64-7
Great Shearwater P. gravis 41 55-9; 44 63
Wedge-tailed Shearwater P. pacifcus 50 55b
Wilson’s Petrel Oceanites oceanicus 65 75a
Frigate Petrel Pelagodroma marina 51 41-4; 65 71a
Storm Petrel Hydrobales pelagicus 13 233; 25 4, 209; 50 49-51 ; 57 26b: 62 63b
Leach’s Petrel Oceanodroma leticorhoa 30 5
Gannet Sula bassana 4 153, 164-8, 198-9, 201, 351-5 ; 18 179-83 ; 27 6, 147-8;
31 1 1 ; 33 106; 36 2-3; 39 40; 41 45-6; 58 33-4. 41-7: 59 52b, 66-9: 60 2 ib. 52;
61 2b; 65 56a, 76c; 66 76-7; 67 1
Brown Booby 5. leucogaster 65 76c
Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo 8 131-2, I35~4°> 38 2; 48 68; 51 34‘5: 81 ®7a
Shag P. aristotelis 21 159-. 36 3; 56 13-20; 61 10, 51-2; 65 72c
Magnificent Frigatebird Fregata magnificens 47 12-13
Great Frigatebird F. minor 47 1 4 ; 65 72a
Red-billed Tropicbird Phaethon aethereus 65 72b
White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus 56 50a, 51 ; 65 35b. 70a
Brown Pelican P. occidentals 65 70b
Grey Heron Ardea cinerea 9 286-9: 20 60: 47 65: 54 29a; 61 5, 24b: 67 5
Purple Heron .4. purpurea 40 26-31 ; 51 59; 58 58; 67 6, 32
553
554
Index to photographs in volumes i-6y
Little Egret Egretla garzetta 30 4; 46 36-41 ; 50 73-4; 51 6b, 53a; 63 67a; 67 31b
Great White Egret E. alba 45 61 ; 55 72-9; 56 53
Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloides 45 64; 50 75; 52 33-6; 65 50c
Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis 30 4; 45 65-70; 50 73-4, 78c; 58 57; 59 33b
Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax 47 53-9; 50 73, 76a; 64 59a; 67 45a
Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus 10 249; 46 17-24; 47 6; 64 53
Bittern Botaurus stellaris 1 6; 5 2, 92, 94; 13 1, 10-11; 34 99; 35 221
Yellow-billed Stork Mycteria ibis 67 7a
White Stork Ciconia ciconia 51 6b; 59 26; 65 1-3, 46-7
Black Stork C. nigra 55 50b; 59 23-5
Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia 48 68; 56 35-8, 5ob; 61 7 1 1> ; 63 68a
Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus 14 137; 45 62-3; 56 47; 60 37
Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber 41 61-9; 50 79a, b; 51 51 ; 58 53b, 54
Lesser Flamingo P. minor 65 35b
Mallard Anas platyrhynchos 4 2, 68-9 ; 9 279; 66 17a
Black Duck A. rubripes 48 45-6
Pintail A. acuta 43 31 ; 55 39a; 66 78a
Red-crested Pochard Netta rufina 18 93, 93
Scaup Aythya marila 14 268 ; 64 12a
Tufted Duck A.fuligula 9 279 ; 14 267
Ring-necked Duck A. collaris 64 5gd
Ferruginous Duck A. nyroca 55 51a
Barrow’s Goldeneye Bucephala islandica 63 18b, 69a
Long-tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis 33 139; 61 73b; 63 69b
Harlequin Duck Histrionicus histrionicus 49 4b; 61 30b; 63 71a
Steller’s Eider Polysticta stelleri 65 50a; 67 48
Eider Somateria mollissima 7 3, 102-3; 9 5^5 ; 23 27; 43 1 7; 60 39a; 61 67b; 65 56b;
67 48
King Eider S. spectabilis 60 39; 6351a
Red-breasted Merganser Mergus senator 55 39b
Goosander M. merganser 23 246; 66 27a
Smew M. albellus 63 6a
Shelduck Tadorna tadorna 9 311,27 109 ; 44 9-1 1 ; 53 27b; 54 18-21 ; 57 26a; 61 70a;
63 34-5 ; 66 29b
Greylag Goose Anser anser 5 179; 7 i, 34-6; 55 54b; 58 32; 63 70, 71c
White-fronted Goose A. albifrons 39 13; 49 25-8
Lesser White-fronted Goose A. erythropus 39 11-12, 14; 49 21-4
Pink-footed Goose A. brachyrhynchus 12 233; 49 9-16; 58 52; 65 35a; 66 78b
Brent Goose Branta bernicla 45 85-8; 63 8-10, 20b
Barnacle Goose B. leucopsis 46 32-5; 62 34a; 63 70; 67 30a
Canada Goose B. canadensis 62 13; 67 30b
Mute Swan Cygnus olor 44 55; 57 45a
Whooper Swan C. cygnus 6 6; 15 17 1; 44 53-8; 56 34; 57 6a; 61 72a; 63 68b;
65 3°a; 67 36a
Bewick’s Swan C. bewickii 18 276 ; 44 59-60; 61 72b
Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus 51 7b; 56 22b; 58 38b; 65 61, 66b-7
Griffon Vulture Gypsfulvus 39 31-5; 51 7b; 56 22b; 58 37, 38b; 65 61, 63-5, 66a
Black Vulture Aegypius monachus 58 35-8; 65 62
Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus 53 1-8; 65 61, 68
Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos 3 206; 18 238-9; 19 220-2; 24 1 ; 44 65-76; 56 24a;
57 1-4, 51, 66a; 58 17; 61 8a, 27; 62 61; 65 10-11
Imperial Eagle A. heliaca 65 15a, b
Spanish Imperial Eagle A. h. adalberti 51 7a
Steppe Eagle A. rapax orientalis 65 I5c-e; 67 7b
Spotted Eagle A. clanga 65 12a
555
Index to photographs in volumes 1-67
Lesser Spotted Eagle A. pomarina 55 55a; 56 24b; 65 12I2-14; 66 61-4
Bonelli’s Eagle Hieraaetus fasciatus 54 66-73; 64 69; 65 63b
Booted Eagle H. pennatus 63 52-8 ; 64 68
Buzzard Buteo buteo 13/40; 56 33a; 57 27a; 59 9-10; 60 24a; 64 37-8, 41a; 66 51b
Steppe Buzzard B. b. vulpinus 64 39a, b
Rough-legged Buzzard B. lagopus 39 7-8; 61 55-7; 64 40
Long-legged Buzzard B. rufmus 64 39c, d
Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus 8 157-8) 10 3-8, 27, 29-31, 33, 35-6, 52-3, 55, 58, 76-7,
79, 82-3, 85, 107, 109, 1 12-4) *2 62, 64, 76, 78, 80) 13 1 19, 121-3) *5 75, 257,
259, 261) 20 116-7) 26 35 > 3#; 56 23a; 58 16, 26a; 59 1 6a; 61 9, 28b: 62 10a;
66 1, 37-44, 71 ; 67 35a
Levant Sparrowhawk A. brevipes 66 70
Goshawk A. gentilis 51 37-40; 57 46; 66 69
Red Kite Milvus milvtis 50 25-32 ; 64 65-63
Black Kite M. migrans 49 5-7; 51 7b; 56 22b; 60 38: 64 66b-7
Black-winged Kite Elanus caeruleus 56 65-72 ; 66 67d-8
White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla 34 1,5, 7, 9; 47 66; 57 62-8; 65 16
Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus 55 3-5; 64 41-2
Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus 17 1 03 ; 37 1-4; 39 27-30; 56 25b; 65 41a, b
Hen Harrier C. cyaneus 1 240) 56 25a, 33b; 60 24b; 62 10b; 65 38b, 41c, 42a, 43a,
44a, b, 58b
Pallid Harrier C. macrourus 56 26b; 65 42b, 43b; 67 8
Montagu’s Harrier C. pygargus 25 1 ; 39 23-6; 58 13; 64 78b; 65 42c, 43c, 44c
Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus 51 3; 56 22a; 64 70-1
Osprey Pandion haliaetus 1 1 , 19, 41, 43) 19 248) 49 65-72 ; 59 2 1 a ; 61 32-7 ; 64 72
Hobby Falco subbuteo 56 23b; 60 22; 61 28a; 66 46
Peregrine F. peregrinus 21 27) 22 2, 198, 200-1) 46 5-12; 56 21; 59 14; 61 8b;
64 26a; 65 53; 66 20c-e
Lanner F. biarmicus 66 20a, b ; 67 4a
Saker F. cherrug 66 1 8b, 1 9
Gyrfalcon F. rusticolus 49 37-43; 66 17, 18a
Eleonora’s Falcon F. eleonorae 54 35-9; 66 45
Merlin F. columbarius 11 120) 15 125, 196-201, 225, 227, 229, 249, 251-2, 276 ;
*7 95-6- 35 218) 53 26a; 59 12-13; 60 51b; 62 65a; 63 16; 66 48b-e
Red-footed Falcon F. vespertinus 63 49a; 66 47-8a, 56b
Lesser Kestrel F. naumanni 47 17-19: 66 66c-7c; 67 9
Kestrel F. tinnunculus 4 299-301 ; 47 20; 55 38; 56 26a; 57 27b: 59 50: 60 21a. 23;
64 26b; 65 IVa; 66 f>5a-6b
Red Grouse Lagopus lagopus 57 17; 64 28b
Ptarmigan L. mutus 50 17-24; 57 5a, 28; 61 6; 65 4-8
Black Grouse Lyrurus tetrlx 30 2-3, 34, 36) 67 13-20
Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus 51 29-32; 56 1-5; 61 7b: 63 67b; 65 27b
Hazel Grouse Tetrastes bonasia 65 27a
Red-legged Partridge Alectoris rufa 67 36b
Partridge Perdix perdix 29 3; 58 14b; 61 7a; 66 32
Crane Grus grits 49 57-64; 55 50a; 56 55-9; 63 51b; 66 56a
Water Rail Rallus aquaticus 3 3-10
Spotted Crake Porzana porzana 64 43-4; 66 6a
Little Crake P. parva 53 60-3
Corncrake Crex crex 38 11-12; 44 1 7-24 5 55 43a: 5^ 55a: 59 5®
Purple Gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio 67 37-40
Moorhen Gallinula chloropus 9 260-2) 47 67
Coot Fulica atra 9 263) 14 267-8) 60 1 ; 65 57b
Great Bustard Otis tarda 59 frontispiece (colour), 1-8. 70-3
Little Bustard 0. tetrax 60 9-1 1
55^ Index to photographs in volumes 1-67
Houbara Bustard Chlamydotis undulata 56 61
Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus 9 107; 39 45; 41 31-40; 42 14a; 44 32 b;
54 3lb5 55 46bi 57 9'12; 62 66b; 63 21a; 65 57a; 66 27b, 79b
Spur- winged Plover Vanellus spinosus 58 9-12
Lapwing V. vanellus 9 259; 35 247; 55 46a, 81 a; 57 24a; 59 54a
Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula 9 307; 15 27-31; 21 79; 25 2-3, 35-6; 40 1-8;
55 37. 81b; 58 21
Little Ringed Plover C. dubius 32 3-4; 38 1-4; 62 35b
Kentish Plover C. alexandrinus 39 9; 50 79c; 57 50b; 60 55a; 66 28a
Killdeer C. vociferus 20 8
Caspian Plover C. asiaticus 65 23-4
Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola 48 65-7; 55 80; 64 24b
Golden Plover P. apricaria 42 73-84; 62 42
Lesser Golden Plover P. dominica 9 84-7; 65 Ilia, 49b
Dotterel Eudromias morinellus 1 1 7, 9 ; 35 193 ; 53 1 2 ; 54 26 ; 57 7b ; 60 5a, 55b ; 61 74a
Turnstone Arenaria interpres 15 174-7 ; 19 1, 3, 5, 7; 42 56; 45 37-44; 55 49, 88a;
60 28b; 66 26b
Short-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus griseus 54 56a, 57 ; 6i 47
Long-billed Dowitcher L. scolopaceus 54 56b, 58; 61 43-6, 66b; 65 49a; 67 46-7
Dowitcher Limnodromus sp 20 219 ; 42 32
Stilt Sandpiper Micropalama himantopus 48 4-5
Snipe Gallinago gallinago 2 252-3, 255-8; 42 36-7; 44 13; 50 16; 53 27a; 55 82a;
57 7G 59 3ia; 65 49a
Great Snipe G. media 42 33-5 ; 58 72-9
Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus 9 283-5; 21 L 3
Woodcock Scolopax rusticola 60 4a; 65 40a
Upland Sandpiper Bartramia longicauda 43 47-8; 62 68; 66 53
Curlew Numenius arquata 53 25; 54 31b; 55 43b; 57 70b; 63 73a; 64 22a, 80a;
66 72, 73b
Whimbrel JV. phaeopus 17 71-4, 151-3; 59 53; 60 56b
Hudsonian Whimbrel JV. (/>.) hudsonicus 48 53
Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa 14 100-1; 35 110-1; 40 9; 55 82b; 57 24b, 49,
70a; 62 45-7, 51 ; 63 73b; 65 45
Bar-tailed Godwit L. lapponica 41 23-30
Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus 42 19-21 ; 55 84b; 67 10a
Wood Sandpiper T. glareola 40 19-21; 54 22, 24-5; 62 12b; 64 13-17
Solitary Sandpiper T. solitaria 57 44a, b; 60 41b
Common Sandpiper T. hypoleucos 9 105; 54 32a; 55 84a; 64 19b, 49; 67 31a
Spotted Sandpiper T. macularia 63 31; 64 18- 19a
Common or Spotted Sandpiper 65 48a
Redshank T. totanus 9 108; 55 36b, 85a
Spotted Redshank T. erythropus 41 17-21; 55 85b; 65 28b-g
Greater Yellowlegs T. melanoleuca 42 26-8
Lesser Yellowlegs T.flavipes 20 144; 233-4; 42 29-31 ; 45 72; 48 1 1-12, 52a, b; 66 54
Greenshank T. nebularia 35 167, 243; 40 10; 55 84c; 57 6b; 58 56; 62 35a; 64 22b
Marsh Sandpiper T. stagnatilis 60 28a
Grey-rumped Sandpiper T. brevipes 54 5-8
Terek Sandpiper Xenus cinereus 45 12; 52 13-20
Knot Calidris canutus 13 279 ; 42 5 1 -6 1 a ; 55 36b, 88b ; 58 28b ; 60 28b ; 61 64b ; 66 79a
Purple Sandpiper C. maritima 43 18-25; 61 64a; 63 72c
Little Stint C. minuta 8 4, 204-6; 43 58-9; 55 87a; 61 65b; 62 57-60; 65 79
Tcmminck’s Stint C. temminckii 10 157, 159, 161, 163; 28 149; 31 12; 43 50-6;
66 49
Baird’s Sandpiper C. bairdii 46 44-6; 65 1 1 1 b
White-rumped Sandpiper C.fuscicollis 49 8; 57 44c; 60 40a; 64 54; 66 55b; 67 49b
Index to photographs in volumes 1-67 - -
Pectoral Sandpiper C. melanotos 42 23-5; 61 66a; 63 72a; 64 20, 24a, 60b; 67 51
Sharp-tailed Sandpiper C. acuminata 67 50
Dunlin C. alpina 55 86b, c; 56 28a; 60 28b; 61 30a; 64 77c
Curlew Sandpiper C.ferruginea 55 86a; 63 23a, 72b
Scmipalmatcd Sandpiper C. pusilla 20 144; 43 57; 47 27-8; 59 79; 63 72a
Sanderling C. alba 55 87b; 60 28b; 61 65a
Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis 20 188, 191; 64 la, 55C-7; 67 49c
Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus 40 16-18; 54 51-4; 64 55a. b; 65 26
Ruff Philomachus pugnax 1 3; 14 147-52 : 44 41-4; 52 49-56; 55 83a; 59 29a: 62
52a, 66a; 63 23b; 65 28a; 66 50-ia; 67 10b
Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta 8 2, 58-61; 14 195, 197, 199 , soi : 19 2, 85-7; 41 1-3;
51 5°b; 55 83b; 56 28b; 57 50a; 59 31b; 63 32-9
Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus 35 43-5 ; 38 7-9; 43 42-6; 50 78b; 51 ib,
57c; 58 14a; 62 65b
Grey Phalarope Phalaropus fulicarius 9 12, 15-16 ; 27 208; 44 33-6, 38-40; 61 63
Red-necked Phalarope P. lobatus 1 207; 8 1, 9, //, 293; 44 37; 48 3; 54 23. 31a;
65 30b
Wilson’s Phalarope P. tricolor 48 t-2; 60 61-4; 64 Ib; 65 50b, 78
Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus 1 303-4, 306-7 ; 6 7; 27 4-5, 114-5: 60 4b: 66 28b
Collared Pratincole Glareola pratincola 41 47-51 ; 50 80a; 51 57b; 56 32a
Cream-coloured Courser Ctirsorius cursor 63 49b: 65 17-22
Great Skua Stercorarius skua 16 176-8, 180: 59 29b; 61 17a; 62 23b; 65 74b
Pomarine Skua S', pomarinus 28 118; 48 52c, d
Arctic Skua S. parasiticus 16 199-201 ; 42 12a; 58 23, 24a, 26b; 65 38a, 74c
Long-tailed Skua S. longicaudus 8 79; 13 143 ; 45 1-8; 58 21-2, 24b, c; 65 31 ; 67 33a
Ivory Gull Pagophila eburnea 26 1, 3-4, 6; 44 50-1 ; 52 21-4; 55 68
Great Black-backed Gull Larus marinus 25 312
Lesser Black-backed Gull L.fuscus 1 116; 7 309-11 ; 22 53; 25 311; 41 54b; 59 28;
62 7; 65 69a
Herring Gull L. argentatus 13 49, 192 ; 25 313: 43 81; 47 26b; 54 28a: 59 51a:
64 73a, 85-7 ; 65 1 ; 66 74a
Albino Lesser Black-backed or Herring Gull 57 41
Common Gull L. canus 7 17, 279; 13 304-5; 59 30b
Ring-billed Gull L. delawarensis 66 22C-3
Glaucous Gull L. hyperboreus 16 7; 40 40-9; 54 47a; 56 39-42; 65 80
Iceland Gull L. glaucoides 40 40, 50-3; 43 74-81
Audouin’s Gull L. audouinii 62 37-41
Slender-billed Gull L. genei 57 34-8
Great Black-headed Gull L. ichthyaetus 61 48
Mediterranean Gull L. melanocephalus 50 9-1 1 ; 57 39-40; 61 71a; 63 1 1-14: 65 Ila
Laughing Gull L. atricilla 60 17-19; 63 50
Franklin’s Gull L. pipbccan 64 50-1
Bonaparte’s Gull L. Philadelphia 43 33; 61 49, 73a
Little Gull L. minutus 39 1-6; 42 22b: 52 9-12; 55 40b; 63 22a
Black-headed Gull L. ridibundus 9 72, 289; 24 284; 25 105; 45 9-1 1 : 51 1 7 ? 52 I2b:
55 19-21; 56 32b; 57 12, 39a: 61 49a: 64 51b: 65 73c: 67 24b
Mediterranean X Black-headed Gull 63 65
Sabine’s Gull L. sabini 48 9-10; 64 60a, c; 65 I lb
Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea 52 66-9: 67 64
Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla 4 198. 200, 202-3 : 46 27b; 55 68b; 58 25; 60 26b; 61 52:
62 62a; 64 73b-5; 66 74b
Black Tern Chlidonias ntger 14 122-5; 4® 54a- 55a: 52b: 65 73b
White-winged Black Tern C. leucopterus 48 54b, 55b, 56; 61 53-4; 64 59b, c
Whiskered Tern C. hybrida 41 41-4; 51 58a
558 Index to photographs in volumes i-6y
Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica 18 202-5, 207> 45 73-8o ; 50 80b; 51 50a;
54 32b; 62 62b; 66 55a
Caspian Tern Hydroprogne caspia 47 61-4; 64 45-8
Common Tern Sterna hirundo 8 255, 260, 265-6; 9 305-10; 42 10a; 44 16; 61 70b;
62 36; 65 75b; 67 22, 23a, 24b, 26-7
Arctic Tern S. paradisaea 2 81; 42 12; 65 73a; 66 75; 67 21, 23b, 24a, 33b
Roseate Tern S. dougallii 26 168; 44 14-15; 53 30b; 61 70b; 67 26-7
Sooty Tern S', fuscata 50 52-5
Bridled Tern S. anaethetus 28 53; 51 45-8
Little Tern S. albifrons 2 3, 7, 313-21; 14 75-7, 80-1; 15 52-3; 63 22b
Royal Tern S. maxima 48 13-18
Sandwich Tern S. sandvicensis 32 277-8; 34 92; 65 59
Black Noddy Anous tenuirostris 65 70c
African Skimmer Rynchops fiavirostris 65 75c
Razorbill Alca lor da 57 7a; 65 69b
Little Auk Plautus alle 54 43-8
Guillemot Uria aalge 22 52; 36 2-3; 65 3g; 66 80b
Black Guillemot Cepphus grylle 59 30a; 63 21b
Puffin Fratercula arctica 27 8, 215; 57 7a; 66 25, 80a
Pin-tailed Sandgrouse Pterocles alchata 62 72-4
Stock Dove Columba oenas 61 12b; 62 33b; 65 39a
Rock Dove C. livia 54 37
Feral pigeon C. livia 63 7a
Woodpigeon C. palumbus 53 45-9; 54 34; 60 54 64 25b
Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur 18 3-4, 6, 8-3; 36 1 ; 54 27 ; 63 18a; 66 31b
Collared Dove S', decaocto 50 41a, b, 42; 57 18-21
Cuckoo Cuculus canorus 1 365-6; 3 412-3; 23 186; 45 28; 52 43-4; 62 22; 67 4b
Great Spotted Cuckoo Clamator glandarius 67 45b
Yellow-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus americanus 47 33-6; 65 5od
Black-billed Cuckoo C. erythrophthalmus 47 29-32
Barn Owl Tyto alba 4 261; 25 5; 42 64-9; 55 40a; 58 19a; 59 27 ; 62 33a, 64; 65 IVb,
36-7
Scops Owl Otus scops 45 81 ; 51 25-8; 62 71
Eagle Owl Bubo bubo 50 65-8
Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca 44 8; 47 69-72; 59 17; 61 13-19; 62 4-5
Hawk Owl Surnia ulula 46 6o-3a; 65 25
Pygmy Owl Glaucidium passerinum 51 13-16
Little Owl Athene noctua 31 5; 59 55a; 60 3; 63 19; 66 26a
Tawny Owl Strix aluco 57 25; 58 50; 61 29a; 62 32; 65 40b
Great Grey Owl S. nebulosa 49 1-3; 55 60-4 ; 63 1
Ural Owl S. uralensis 46 63b- 7
Long-eared Owl Asio otus 9 61, 63-5; 35 1, 4, 6-7; 39 46
Short-eared Owl A.flammeus 18 227-3; 2& 230; 57 52b; 58 19b; 59 34, 55b; 60 51a;
63 74
Tengmalm’s Owl Aegolius ftmereus 6 9; 46 1-2; 52 1-4; 60 25
Nighthawk Chordeiles minor 65 51a
Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus 27 340; 42 38; 54 10-17; 59 5 1 b ; 64 79b
Red-necked Nightjar C. ruficollis 66 57-9
Little Swift Apus affinis 60 33-4
White-rumped Swift A. cafer 62 24
Swift A. apus 55 10-18; 64 76; 67 34a
Alpine Swift A. melba 52 37-42; 67 49a
Needle-tailed Swift Hirundapus caudacutus 53 55-8 ; 59 1 8a
Kingfisher Alcedo atthis 11 221; 26 2, 264, 307; 28 238; 58 18; 62 29
Bee-eater Merops apiaster 41 4-8; 50 43-5; 55 33
559
Index to photographs in volumes 1-67
Blue-cheeked Bee-eater At. superciliosus 67 1 1 a
Roller Coracias garrultis 42 1 8 ; 56 9- 1 1
Hoopoe Upupa epops 35 io9; 42 15-17; 48 47-51
Green Woodpecker Pic us viridis 24, 144-, 35 147-, 49 4a; 64 28a; 66 1
Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major 5 137; 20 59; 43 10a; 47 15; 53 43a;
55 34; 57 76
White-backed Woodpecker D. leucotos 45 57-9
Three-toed Woodpecker Picoides Iridactylus 39 21-2
Black Woodpecker Dryocopus martius 45 53-6; 59 35-8
W ryneck Jynx torquilla 62 15a; 66 9-16
Calandra Lark Melanocorypha calandra 43 62-4
Short-toed Lark Calandrella cinerea 43 65-8; 48 6; 51 1 ib
Crested Lark Galerida cristata 55 6-7
Thckla Lark G. theklae 58 48
Woodlark Lullula arborea 3 1, 9; 42 7; 60 5b
Skylark Alauda arvensis 18 293-4', 1 J 35 1 2 3\ 8* 69a
Shore Lark Eremophila alpeslris 45 21-3; 67 68, 69a, 71
Temminck’s Horned Lark E. bilopha 67 69b, 70
Swallow Hirundo rustica 62 63a; 63 7b; 66 60b
Red-rumped Swallow ll. daurica 56 62-3
Crag Martin H. rupestris 63 40-3
House Martin Delichon urbica 41 54a; 42 48a, 49: 43 39-41 ; 60 26a; 65 58a; 66 60b
Swallow X House Martin 66 60a
Sand Martin Riparia riparia 42 46-7, 48b; 58 15; 64 23
Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus 62 14; 64 II, 61-3
Raven Corvus corax 3 233-6; 56 22b; 58 29; 59 15
Carrion Crow C. corone corone 58 3 1 b : 59 1 1 a
Hooded Crow C. c. cornix 3 239-41; 9 103: 53 26b
Carrion X Hooded Crow 18 33
Rook C. frugilegus 15 11-14; 32'- 85
Jackdaw C. monedula 41 52b, 53b; 45 84b
Magpie Pica pica 55 35 ; 57 72a
Azure-winged Magpie Cyanopica cyanus 51 1 ia; 67 35b
Nutcracker Nucifraga caryocatactes 45 13-20; 63 59-64
Jay Garrulus glandarius 43 49; 46 14-15; 50 62; 53 43a; 56 27: 59 52a: 61 29b;
66 29a
Siberian Jay Perisoreus infausius 64 1-8
Blue Jay Cyanocitta cristata 5058-9
Chough Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax 51 23; 63 2-4; 64 64
Alpine Chough P. graculus 51 21-2, 24; 63 5
Great Tit Parus major 42 39b, 71b. 72a; 43 10b; 53 37, 40a; 55 47
Blue Tit P. caeruleus 42 39a, 71, 72; 43 10b, 37-8; 46 16; 51 75; 52 72; 53 39, 40b:
54 49: 85 80
Coal Tit P. aUr 34 5 9; 42 40b; 49 19-20; 5* 76; 57 31a
Crested Tit P. cristatus 34 167-8 , 170: 61 1 ia
Marsh Tit P. palustris 43 10b
Willow Tit P. montanus 28 166; 60 8; 64 27
Long-tailed Tit Aegithalos caudatus 4 78; 45 60: 55 32; 61 1 ib
Northern Long-tailed Tit A. c. caudatus 42 1 1
Penduline Tit Remiz pendulinus 51 54: 55 54a: 58 59
Nuthatch Sitta europaea 32 2, 137 : 53 29: 57 69; 61 31a; 62 16
Wallcreeper Tichodroma muraria 63 24-30
Treecreeper Certhia familiaris 30 1 ,6. 9; 34 57; 35 141; 52 72; 57 29
Wren Troglodytes troglodytes 35 146; 40 14; 59 32; 62 22: 67 4b
St Kilda Wren T. t. hirtensis 40 12-13, 15; 57 8
560 Index to photographs in volumes 1-67
Dipper Cinclus cinclus 5 5, 294-3 ; 50 46-7; 57 48, 72b
Black-bellied Dipper C. c. cinclus 47 8
Bearded Tit Panurus biarmicus 6 4, 139-41-, 35 72; 54 30; 59 74-8
Mistle Thrush Turdus viscivorus 16 163; 25 56'; 43 13a, 14, 16; 60 56a
Fieldfare T. pilaris 5 131 ; 45 34b-6; 57 60b; 62 6a, 12a
Song Thrush T. philomelos 53 43b; 57 58, 61b; 60 42
Redwing T. iliacus 45 29-343; 57 60a, 61a; 62 31b
Siberian Thrush T. sibiricus 487
Dusky Thrush T. naumanni 53 35
Black-throated Thrush T. nificollis 51 33
Ring Ouzel T. torquatus 24 31; 27 7; 32 6; 57 52a; 58 30a; 59 19-20
Blackbird T. merula 4 44-, 43 15a, 37-8; 53 42; 55 23c, 36a, 41, 42b; 60 27b, 43,
44a; 62 31a
American Robin T. migratorius 46 56-9; 50 60
Wood Thrush Catharus mustelinus 50 57
Grey-cheeked Thrush Hylocichla minima 47 45-73; 62 69
Veery H. fuscescens 65 9
Rock Thrush Monticola saxatilis 49 29-36; 62 1-3; 65 34b
Blue Rock Thrush M. solitanus 61 39-42
Wheatear Oenanthe oenanthe 42 44-5; 49 17; 57 75b; 62 67
Greenland Wheatear 0. 0. leucorrhoa 64 78a
Desert Wheatear 0. deserti 43 34-6; 50 12-13
Black-eared Wheatear 0. hispanica 43 69-73; 51 60b; 63 17a; 65 51b
Isabelline Wheatear 0. isabellina 67 12b
Black Wheatear 0. leucura 29 4; 53 64-7
Stonechat Saxicola torquata 26 225; 60 53; 62 30a
Whinchat S. rubetra 42 5b, 6a, 426-3; 56 30; 57 30; 65 34a
Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus 42 40a, 41, 42a; 43 15b; 60 60
Black Redstart P. ochruros 31 13; 38 6; 45 27
Nightingale Luscinia megarhynchos 6 5, 172-3, 775; 42 2-3
Red-spotted Bluethroat L. svecica svecica 40 23-5 ; 61 59-62 ; 65 la
Robin Erithacus rubecula 10 42; 47 60; 52 63; 53 38b, 41 ; 54 49; 60 44b; 64 21 ;
65 55a
Rufous Bush Robin Cercotrichas galactotes 40 32-4; 53 19-20; 63 44-8
Cetti’s Warbler Cettia cetti 57 54-7
Grasshopper Warbler Locustella naevia 3 225; 20 752; 56 31; 58 55b; 61 12a;
63 17b; 64 52
River Warbler L. Jluviatilis 55 23a
Savi’s Warbler L. luscinioides 55 55b; 60 41
Moustached Warbler Acrocephalus melanopogon 47 1-4
Thick-billed Warbler A. aedon 60 29-32
Great Reed Warbler A. arundinaceus 44 256-9; 51 56a
Reed Warbler A. scirpaceus 24 261; 44 25a
Marsh Warbler A. palustris 45 28; 67 29
Sedge Warbler A. schoenobaenus 31 121; 42 66
Aquatic Warbler A. paludicola 65 52c
Melodious Warbler Hippolais polyglotla 49 18b; 57 43a; 58 1-5
Icterine Warbler H. icterina 47 21 -6a; 57 43b; 67 52-4
Olivaceous Warbler H. pallida 40 37-9 ; 46 27a
Barred Warbler Sylvia nisoria 49 45-52
Orphean Warbler S. hortensis 64 9-1 1
Garden Warbler S’, borin 42 9b
Whitethroat S. communis 54 33
Lesser Whitethroat S. curruca 35 91
Sardinian Warbler S. melanocephala 29 1 09 ; 40 35-6; 60 58-9, 484
561
Index to photographs in volumes 1-67
Subalpine Warbler S. cantillans 24 2; 60 13-16
Spectacled Warbler S. conspicillata 51 56b
Dartford Warbler S. undata 28 2; 57 53a; 66 30a
Marmora’s Warbler S. sarda 48 41-4
Fan-tailed Warbler Cisticola juncidis 51 2; 65 77a
Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus 35 121 \ 42 1 ; 43 27b-9, 30b; 61 25a
Greenish Warbler P. trochiloides 48 58-60
Wood Warbler P. sibilatrix 55 44-5; 57 53b: 60 6b; 61 25b: 66 31a
Bonelli’s Warbler P. bonelli 54 62-4; 65 52b
Arctic Warbler P. borealis 46 48-55; 61 50a
Pallas’s Warbler P. proregulus 51 36; 64 59c
Dusky Warbler P.fuscatus 61 50b; 64 58
Radde’s Warbler P. schwarzi 53 13-18; 55 23b; 56 64
Goldcrcst Regulus regulus 62 30b
Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata 8 7/5; 42 50, 63; 57 75a; 62 9
Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca 47 42-3, 51 ; 57 74
Collared Flycatcher F. albicollis 47 49-50, 52
Red-breasted Flycatcher F. parva 58 66-7
Dunnock Prunella modularis 53 40b; 60 27a, 45
Alpine Accentor P. collaris 48 34-9
Richard’s Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae 56 44a, 45
Tawny Pipit A. campestris 46 68-71 ; 56 43. 44b
Meadow Pipit A. pratensis 36 5; 58 30b
Tree Pipit A. trivial is 42 4b, 5a
Olive-backed Pipit A. hodgsoni 60 20
Red-throated Pipit A. cervinus 62 17-20; 67 nb
Rock Pipit A. spinoletta 31 1 ; 61 69b
Water Pipit A. s. spinoletta 59 81
Pied Wagtail Motacilla alba yarrellii 1 366; 9 104 ; 24 364-, 61 26a
White Wagtail A/, a. alba 62 15b
Grey Wagtail M. cinerea 4 ig; 57 32a; 65 33a
Citrine Wagtail M. citreola 48 8; 58 49
Yellow Wagtail AI. flava Jlavissima 35 188
Blue-headed Wagtail M.f flava 1 141
Grey-headed Wagtail M.f. thunbergi 31 101
Black-headed Wagtail M. f. feldegg 67 12a
Waxwing Bombycilla garrulus 7 320 ; 37 8; 54 1-4; 58 39; 66 30b
Great Grey Shrike Lanius excubitor 50 37-40; 51 9a: 62 1 1
Steppe Grey Shrike L. e. pallidirostris 50 41c
Lesser Grey Shrike L. minor 46 31a; 53 50-4
Woodchat Shrike L. senator 46 47; 58 68-71
Red-backed Shrike L. collurio 10 177, ryg\ 42 8, 9a; 59 16b, 33a; 61 68a; 64 79a
Starling Sturnus vulgaris 44 32; 46 43; 50 61 ; 53 43b; 55 36a; 57 60a; 60 46-7;
61 26b; 62 31a; 63 20a
Myrtle Warbler Dendroica coronata 48 25-30
Blackpoll Warbler D. striata 62 70
Northern Waterthrush Seiurus noveboracensis 53 59
Yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas 48 21-4
Bobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorus 58 40
Hawfinch Coccothraustes coccothraustes 29 1-2; 35 70; 43 11-153; 61 24a
Greenfinch Carduelis chloris 56 8; 61 31b
Goldfinch C. carduelis 35 67
Siskin C. spinus 66 21 -2b
Linnet Acanthis cannabina 53 3 1 ; 60 7
Twite A. flavirostris 21 ti8: 56 29a; 60 50
Index to photographs in volumes 1-67
562
Redpoll A. flammea 54 40-1 ; 57 32b
Mealy Redpoll A.f. flammea 40 22
Citril Finch Serinus citrinella 31 3-4; 49 53-6
Serin S. serinus 64 29-34
Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula 12 123, 126, 129; 60 6a; 65 54
Scarlet Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus 55 22
Pine Grosbeak Pinicola enucleator 44 48-9 ; 48 1 9-20
Crossbill Loxia curvirostra 21 239; 29 283; 41 9-15; 47 47b; 67 34b
Parrot Crossbill L. pytyopsittacus 57 13-16
Chaffinch Fringilla coelebs 41 52a, 53a; 42 4a; 53 38a, 39b, 40a, 41, 44; 60 2
Brambling F. montifringilla 44 1-7
Summer Tanager Piranga rubra 56 12
Corn Bunting Emberiza calandra 59 54b; 64 79c
Yellow-breasted Bunting E. aureola 52 25-32
Cirl Bunting E. cirlus 39 15-16; 53 32
Cretzschmar’s Bunting E. caesia 62 26
Ortolan Bunting E. hortulana 50 33-5, 36a; 53 21-3
Rock Bunting E. cia 55 24-8
Rustic Bunting E. rustica 44 45-7
Reed Bunting E. schoeniclus 24 138; 53 30a; 56 29b; 65 55b
Lapland Bunting Calcarius lapponicus 9 231, 233; 47 37-40; 58 31a; 65 lb
Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis 45 45-51 ; 61 68b
Song Sparrow Melospiza melodia 52 70; 65 52a
House Sparrow Passer domesticus 53 42 ; 57 31b
Tree Sparrow P. montanus 7 39; 53 28
House X Tree Sparrow 50 14-15
Snow Finch Montifringilla nivalis 63 5
Rock Sparrow Petronia petronia 55 29-3 1
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n
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